Civil Service Basic cheat sheet

Main idea = the claim the whole passage supports; a detail supports only one paragraph and cannot serve as the main idea.

Inference is valid only if it follows necessarily from stated evidence; anything requiring an unstated assumption is out of scope.

Tone words split into positive (endorse, commend), negative (decry, disparage), and neutral (report, describe); match the answer choice's tone to the passage's.

For 'EXCEPT' and 'NOT' questions, test each choice against the passage and eliminate the four that are supported.

Analogy items: state the relationship in a sentence first (e.g., 'X is a tool used by Y'), then apply it in the same direction.

Strengthen/weaken items: the correct choice attacks or supports the link between evidence and conclusion, not the evidence itself.

Passage order questions: locate the sentence's referent pronouns and transitional markers (however, therefore, for example) to fix position.

Vocabulary in context: substitute each option into the original sentence and keep only the one preserving the passage's logic.

Percentage change = (new − old) ÷ old × 100; a rise then equal fall does not return to the original value.

Successive percentage changes combine multiplicatively: net = a + b + ab/100, where a and b are signed percentages.

Simple interest = P × R × T ÷ 100; compound interest = P(1 + R/100)^T − P.

Work problems: if A finishes in x days and B in y days, together they take xy ÷ (x + y) days.

Speed conversion: 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s; 1 m/s = 18/5 km/h.

Average speed for equal distances = 2xy ÷ (x + y), the harmonic mean, not the arithmetic mean.

Ratio splitting: total ÷ sum of ratio parts gives one part; multiply by each ratio term.

Permutations order items (nPr = n! ÷ (n − r)!); combinations do not (nCr = n! ÷ (r!(n − r)!)).

Syllogism: a conclusion is valid only if it holds in every arrangement of the premises; draw the Venn diagram to test.

'All A are B' plus 'All B are C' yields 'All A are C'; 'Some A are B' plus 'All B are C' yields 'Some A are C'.

Contrapositive is always equivalent: 'If P then Q' equals 'If not Q then not P'. Converse ('If Q then P') is not equivalent.

Necessary condition sits after 'only if'; sufficient condition sits after 'if'. Confusing the two is the standard trap.

Number-series check order: differences, then ratios, then alternating sub-series, then squares/cubes, then digit sums.

Odd-one-out: classify by a single shared property (number of sides, symmetry, stroke count); the outlier lacks exactly one property.

Seating and ranking puzzles: fix the most constrained item first, then place items whose position depends on it.

Analogy in figures: verify the transformation on two features (rotation, shading, count) before choosing the option applying both.

Answer current-affairs items only from stable, verifiable facts (office holders, treaty names, institution headquarters); avoid items tied to fast-changing rankings.

Distinguish constitutional bodies (Election Commission, Comptroller and Auditor General, Union Public Service Commission) from statutory bodies created by ordinary law.

Know the headquarters: UN New York, IMF and World Bank Washington DC, WTO Geneva, ILO Geneva, UNESCO Paris, ICJ The Hague.

Sustainable Development Goals: 17 goals adopted in 2015 under the 2030 Agenda; predecessor were the 8 Millennium Development Goals from 2000.

Indian polity dates: Constitution adopted 26 November 1949, in force 26 January 1950; Republic Day marks commencement, not adoption.

Nobel Prizes are awarded in Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, Literature, Peace and Economic Sciences; no Mathematics prize exists.

For 'first in India' items, anchor on the year and the person together; a correct name with a wrong year is a distractor.

Currency and central bank pairings are high-yield: RBI (India), Federal Reserve (US), ECB (euro area), Bank of England (UK).

Weber's ideal bureaucracy: hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, merit appointment, and recorded files.

Taylor's scientific management standardises tasks and uses time-motion study; Fayol's 14 principles address the manager's span of control and unity of command.

POSDCORB (Gulick and Urwick) = Planning, Organising, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, Budgeting.

Line agencies hold command authority; staff agencies advise without command - confusing the two is the classic distractor.

Good governance indicators (UNDP): participation, rule of law, transparency, responsiveness, equity, effectiveness, accountability.

New Public Management borrows market tools: performance contracts, citizen charters, outsourcing, and outcome-based budgeting.

Delegation transfers authority, not accountability; the delegating officer remains answerable for the outcome.

Right to Information and citizen charters operationalise transparency; social audit is a demand-side accountability tool.

Rule of law (Dicey): no punishment without a proven breach, equality before the law, and rights arising from ordinary court decisions.

Natural justice: nemo iudex in causa sua (no one judges their own cause) and audi alteram partem (hear the other side).

Administrative law grounds of review: illegality (ultra vires), irrationality (Wednesbury unreasonableness), and procedural impropriety.

Mens rea is the guilty mind; actus reus is the guilty act. Both are generally required for a criminal offence.

Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty) has been read to include due process; Article 14 guarantees equality before the law.

Judicial review checks legality, not the merits of a policy choice; courts do not substitute their view for the administrator's.

A writ of mandamus commands performance of a public duty; certiorari quashes a decision; prohibition stops a pending proceeding.

Sub-delegation is invalid unless the parent statute expressly permits it - a delegate cannot further delegate.

Mean is sensitive to outliers; median and mode are not. Report the median for skewed salary or income data.

Standard deviation measures spread; a small SD means values cluster near the mean, not that the mean is correct.

Correlation does not imply causation; a third variable or reverse causation can produce the same coefficient.

In a spreadsheet, absolute references ($A$1) stay fixed when copied; relative references (A1) shift by the copied offset.

Common spreadsheet functions: SUM, AVERAGE, COUNT (numbers only), COUNTA (non-empty cells), VLOOKUP, IF, and CONCATENATE.

A circular reference occurs when a formula refers to its own cell, directly or through a chain; it must be broken before calculation.

Formal note structure: subject line, reference number, date, body with one point per paragraph, and a signed designation block.

Minutes record decisions and action points with owners and deadlines, not a verbatim transcript of the discussion.

Paragraph cohesion: a pronoun or 'this' at the start of a sentence must refer to something already introduced.

Cause-effect markers (hence, consequently, as a result) signal that the following clause is a consequence, not a premise.

Assumption questions: negate the answer choice; if the argument collapses, the choice is the required assumption.

Flaw questions: name the defect (hasty generalisation, false dilemma, circular reasoning, ad hominem) before reading the options.

Summary items: the correct option covers the whole passage without adding new claims or dropping a key qualifier.

Scope shift is the most common wrong-answer pattern: the option discusses a topic adjacent to, but not inside, the passage.

Profit and loss: profit% is calculated on cost price unless the question explicitly states selling price as the base.

Discount is calculated on marked price; successive discounts of a% and b% give a single discount of a + b − ab/100.

Mixtures: use the alligation rule - ratio of quantities = (mean − cheaper) : (dearer − mean).

Boats and streams: downstream speed = boat + stream; upstream speed = boat − stream; boat speed = (down + up) ÷ 2.

Pipes and cisterns follow the work formula; a leak is a negative rate and is subtracted from the filling rate.

Simple interest doubles a sum in 100/R years; at 12.5% a sum doubles in 8 years.

Ages and partnership problems: partnership profit shares follow capital × time, not capital alone.

Approximation strategy: round to two significant figures to eliminate options, then compute exactly only if two options remain.

Blood relations: draw a family tree with gender and generation marked; never infer gender from a name or role alone.

Direction sense: track net displacement on axes; a return journey is the reverse vector, and the answer is the straight-line distance.

Calendar: a normal year shifts the day by 1, a leap year by 2; a century year is a leap year only if divisible by 400.

Clock: the minute hand gains 5.5 degrees per minute on the hour hand; hands coincide 11 times in 12 hours.

Coding-decoding: test letter shifts (forward/backward), reversal, and position-value sums in that order.

Statement-assumption items: an assumption is unstated but necessary; a restatement of the statement is never an assumption.

Data sufficiency: decide whether the data fixes a unique answer; two statements may work only in combination.

Indian Constitution Schedules: Seventh Schedule lists Union, State and Concurrent subject lists; Eighth lists the recognised languages.

Fundamental Rights sit in Part III (Articles 12–35); Directive Principles in Part IV (Articles 36–51); Fundamental Duties in Article 51A.

Constitutional amendments under Article 368 require a special majority; federal provisions also need ratification by half the states.

International organisations: WHO Geneva, FAO Rome, IAEA Vienna, UNICEF New York, Amnesty International London.

Economic terms: repo rate is the rate at which the central bank lends to commercial banks; reverse repo absorbs liquidity.

Space and defence milestones are commonly tested with the launch vehicle and year together, not the payload alone.

Environment conventions: Paris Agreement 2015 (climate), Ramsar 1971 (wetlands), CITES 1973 (wildlife trade).

Ministry vs department: a ministry is the political head's charge; a department is its administrative unit headed by a secretary.

Cabinet Secretariat coordinates inter-ministerial business; the Prime Minister's Office provides staff support to the PM.

Budget cycle: formulation, legislative approval, execution, and audit by the Comptroller and Auditor General.

Zero-base budgeting starts each cycle from zero; incremental budgeting adjusts the previous year's allocation.

District administration: the collector combines revenue, law-and-order and coordination roles, which creates role conflict.

Civil service neutrality means political impartiality in advice and execution, not the absence of a personal view.

E-governance maturity rises from information to interaction to transaction to transformation.

Grievance redress: an ombudsman (Lokpal at the centre, Lokayukta in states) investigates maladministration complaints.

Article 12 defines 'State' for fundamental rights, including local authorities and other authorities under government control.

Article 32 empowers the Supreme Court to issue writs; Article 226 gives High Courts the same power, wider in scope.

Doctrine of pleasure (Article 310) governs civil servants; Article 311 restricts dismissal without inquiry.

Audi alteram partem applies to quasi-judicial and administrative acts affecting rights, not to purely legislative acts.

Delegated legislation is valid only within the parent Act; excessive delegation and sub-delegation can be struck down.

Legitimate expectation protects a procedural interest in a promised benefit; it does not guarantee the substantive benefit.

Tort liability of the State: vicarious liability for employees' acts in the course of employment, subject to sovereign immunity limits.

Res judicata bars re-litigation of a decided issue; constructive res judicata bars issues that could have been raised.

Charts: a pie chart suits parts of a whole (percentages summing to 100); a line chart suits trends over time; a bar chart suits comparison.

Misleading axes: a truncated y-axis exaggerates change; check the origin before interpreting a graph.

Percentage-point vs percent: a move from 20% to 25% is 5 percentage points but a 25% relative increase.

File management: version control by date-stamped filenames and a single master copy prevents duplicate edits.

Email etiquette: one subject per message, action requested stated first, and reply-all only when all recipients need the content.

Report structure: title, executive summary, methodology, findings, recommendations, annexures.

A table should carry a unit in the column header rather than repeating it in every cell.

Proofreading order: structure, then paragraph logic, then sentence grammar, then spelling and punctuation last.

Author's purpose terms: to argue, to describe, to compare, to criticise, to propose - match the verb to the passage's function.

A qualifying word ('some', 'most', 'rarely') changes truth value; an option that drops it becomes too strong and wrong.

Parallel structure in sentences: items in a list must share grammatical form (all nouns, all gerunds, all infinitives).

For cloze items, read the whole sentence for the logical connector before choosing the word.

Antonym/synonym items: place the candidate word in a sentence frame to test register and connotation.

A passage that presents two views usually has a synthesising conclusion; the main idea is often the synthesis.

Area formulas: circle πr², triangle ½ × base × height, trapezium ½(a + b)h, parallelogram base × height.

Pythagorean triples (3,4,5), (5,12,13), (8,15,17), (7,24,25) recur; recognise them to save time.

Volume: cylinder πr²h, cone ⅓πr²h, sphere 4/3πr³; a cone is one-third of the cylinder with the same base and height.

Logarithm rules: log(ab) = log a + log b; log(a/b) = log a − log b; log(a^n) = n log a.

Number properties: a number is divisible by 3 if its digit sum is divisible by 3; by 8 if its last three digits are.

Highest common factor × lowest common multiple = product of the two numbers.

Data interpretation: compute the required ratio first and compare options by approximation rather than exact division.

Compound interest for 2 years at R% equals 2 years' simple interest plus R²/100 on the principal.

Venn diagram for 'some' and 'no' statements: shade excluded regions before evaluating any conclusion.

A statement and its converse are not equivalent; a statement and its contrapositive are.

Series with letters: convert to positions 1–26 and look for constant or increasing gaps.

Matrix reasoning: check row-wise and column-wise rules separately; the rule may apply in one direction only.

Seating arrangement: 'facing north' means left is west; 'facing south' reverses left and right.

Puzzle elimination: mark impossible placements explicitly; a single definite placement often unlocks the rest.

Statement-course of action: a valid action must be feasible, proportionate, and address the stated problem directly.

Indian polity: the President is elected by an electoral college; the Vice-President by both Houses of Parliament only.

Money bills can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha, on the President's recommendation, and the Rajya Sabha has 14 days to recommend.

Judicial review and the basic structure doctrine derive from Kesavananda Bharati (1973).

International days and years are common items: World Environment Day 5 June, Human Rights Day 10 December, Yoga Day 21 June.

Economy: inflation is measured in India by the Consumer Price Index and Wholesale Price Index; the RBI targets CPI.

Science basics: DNA carries hereditary information; mitochondria produce ATP; photosynthesis converts light to chemical energy.

Awards: Bharat Ratna is the highest civilian award; Param Vir Chakra the highest wartime military decoration.

Separation of powers: legislature makes law, executive implements, judiciary adjudicates; checks balance the three.

Federal vs unitary features: India is 'quasi-federal' - a strong centre with a written constitution and independent judiciary.

Spoils system vs merit system: recruitment by patronage versus competitive examination and security of tenure.

Administrative ethics tools: code of conduct, asset declaration, conflict-of-interest rules, and whistleblower protection.

Public policy stages: agenda setting, formulation, adoption, implementation, monitoring, evaluation.

Performance appraisal methods: confidential report, management by objectives, and 360-degree feedback.

Citizen participation mechanisms: public consultation, participatory budgeting, and social audit of scheme spending.

Decentralisation: 73rd and 74th Amendments created panchayats and municipalities as constitutional bodies.

Precedents: a ratio decidendi binds lower courts; an obiter dictum is persuasive only.

A statute is presumed prospective unless it expressly or by necessary implication applies retrospectively.

Ultra vires: an administrative act beyond the powers granted by statute is void, not merely voidable.

Doctrine of necessity allows a decision-maker to act where no other qualified authority exists, subject to review.

Contract liability of the State: Article 299 requires a contract to be executed by a duly authorised person in the prescribed form.

Fundamental duties (Article 51A) are non-justiciable but may inform statutory interpretation.

Preventive detention is an exception to Article 22 safeguards; it requires an advisory board review within the stated period.

Delegated legislation must be published and laid before Parliament where the parent Act so requires.

Sampling: a random sample reduces selection bias; a larger sample narrows the margin of error but does not remove bias.

Weighted average = Σ(value × weight) ÷ Σ(weights); use it when groups differ in size.

Index numbers compare a value to a base period set at 100; a chained index links successive periods.

Data validation in a spreadsheet restricts input to a list or range and prevents entry errors at source.

Pivot tables summarise large datasets by grouping; refresh them after the underlying data changes.

A good chart title states the finding, not just the variable names (e.g., 'Revenue fell 12% in Q3').

Active voice and short sentences improve official communication; each paragraph should carry one idea.

Confidential documents require classification marking and a distribution list limited to those with a need to know.

Reference resolution: a pronoun agrees with the nearest preceding compatible noun; test each candidate noun in the sentence.

Transition mapping: 'however' signals contrast, 'moreover' signals addition, 'therefore' signals conclusion, 'nevertheless' signals concession.

Argument structure: premise → assumption → conclusion; the conclusion is the claim the author wants accepted.

Parallel reasoning items: match the logical form, not the subject matter, between the passage and the option.

Point at issue: the correct answer is the claim one speaker affirms and the other denies, not a shared premise.

Elimination rule: an option that is true but irrelevant to the question asked is a distractor, not the answer.

Quadratic roots: sum = −b/a, product = c/a; use these to check factorisation quickly.

Arithmetic progression: nth term a + (n − 1)d; sum = n/2 × (first + last).

Geometric progression: nth term ar^(n−1); sum = a(r^n − 1)/(r − 1) for r ≠ 1.

Probability of at least one event = 1 − probability of none; independent events multiply.

Permutation with repetition = n! ÷ (p! q! …) where p, q are counts of repeated items.

Ratio and proportion: if a : b = c : d then ad = bc; use cross-multiplication to solve for the unknown.

Time and distance: distance = speed × time; for a train crossing a platform, add train and platform lengths.

Data sufficiency in numbers: test with a positive, a negative, and a fraction before declaring a statement insufficient.

Causal reasoning: a correlation supports causation only if alternative causes and reverse causation are ruled out.

Analogy relationship types: part-to-whole, cause-effect, function, degree, and category-member.

Syllogism with 'no': 'No A is B' converts to 'No B is A'; 'All A are B' does not convert to 'All B are A'.

Input-output and arrangement puzzles: track the transformation rule on one element, then verify on a second.

Mirror and water images: mirror reverses left-right; water image reverses top-bottom.

Paper folding and cutting: unfold step by step, mirroring the cut across each fold line.

Critical reasoning: an answer that weakens the conclusion must make the evidence less supportive, not merely restate it.

UN principal organs: General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice, Secretariat.

Security Council has five permanent members with veto power (China, France, Russia, UK, US) and ten elected members.

Indian economy: GDP is the market value of final goods and services produced domestically in a period.

Fiscal deficit = total expenditure − total receipts excluding borrowings; it measures the borrowing requirement.

Constitutional offices: the Attorney General advises the government; the CAG audits accounts; the UPSC recruits.

Geography: the Tropic of Cancer passes through eight Indian states, including Gujarat, Rajasthan and West Bengal.

Health and science: vaccines work by inducing an immune response; antibiotics act on bacteria, not viruses.

Bureaucratic accountability runs through ministerial responsibility, legislative oversight, judicial review, and audit.

Principal-agent problem: the citizen (principal) cannot fully observe the official (agent), so transparency mechanisms are required.

Red tape is rule-following that serves process over outcome; simplification and single-window clearance target it.

Public-private partnership allocates risk to the party best able to manage it; the contract must specify performance metrics.

Outcome budgeting links allocation to measurable results rather than to historical line items.

Disaster management cycle: mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery - with mitigation as the pre-event phase.

Training and capacity building address the skills gap; organisational reform addresses structure and incentives.

Whistleblower protection requires an independent channel and protection against retaliation, not just a policy statement.

Article 14 permits reasonable classification if it rests on an intelligible differentia with a rational nexus to the object.

Article 19 freedoms are subject to reasonable restrictions listed in clauses 2 to 6; restriction must be by law.

Article 20 protections: no ex post facto criminal law, no double jeopardy, no self-incrimination.

Article 22 requires production before a magistrate within 24 hours for ordinary arrest.

Doctrine of proportionality: a limitation on a right must be suitable, necessary, and balanced against the aim.

Administrative tribunals must comply with natural justice but are not bound by the Evidence Act or CPC procedure.

Void ab initio means the act had no legal effect from the start; voidable means valid until set aside.

Locus standi has been relaxed through public interest litigation, allowing any public-spirited person to move the court.

Noting on file: record the facts, the applicable rule, the options, and a reasoned recommendation - in that order.

Drafting a circular: state the authority, the effective date, the instruction, and the compliance reporting line.

Meeting agenda must be circulated in advance with time allocations; minutes follow within a stated period.

Records retention schedules classify documents by legal and administrative value before disposal.

Data presentation: label both axes with units, cite the source, and state the period covered.

Spreadsheet sorting must include the full data range; sorting one column alone breaks row integrity.

Conditional formatting flags outliers visually but does not alter the underlying values.

Plain-language editing replaces jargon and passive constructions with concrete verbs and named actors.

A fact is verifiable; an opinion is a judgement; an inference is a conclusion drawn from facts.

An option that is too extreme ('always', 'never', 'all') is usually wrong unless the passage uses the same absolute.

For 'which of the following can be inferred', reject options that require information beyond the passage.

Paragraph reordering: the opening sentence introduces the topic without a backward reference; the closing sentence summarises.

Sentence correction: check subject-verb agreement, pronoun reference, modifier placement, and parallelism in that order.

A passage's tone can be mixed (cautious optimism, critical sympathy); the correct answer may combine two labels.

Percentage of a number: convert to a fraction (12.5% = 1/8, 16.67% = 1/6, 33.33% = 1/3) to compute mentally.

If price rises by R%, consumption must fall by R/(100 + R) × 100 to keep expenditure constant.

If a price falls by R%, consumption can rise by R/(100 − R) × 100 for the same spend.

Ratio of two numbers after a percentage change: apply the change to each before comparing.

Simple interest on a sum for T years equals the interest on one year multiplied by T.

Average of consecutive numbers equals the middle term; for an even count, the mean of the two middle terms.

Square roots and cubes: memorise squares up to 30 and cubes up to 15 for quick approximation.

Rounding caution: in data interpretation, round only after identifying the operation, since division magnifies rounding error.

Odd-one-out with numbers: test divisibility, prime/composite status, digit sum, and perfect-square status in order.

Figure series: count sides, lines, dots, and shaded regions separately; one attribute usually follows a constant rule.

Embedded figure items: trace the outline of the target figure inside the complex figure before choosing.

Statement-conclusion: a conclusion must follow from the statement alone; general knowledge is not admissible.

Cause-effect items: the stated cause must be necessary and sufficient for the effect, not merely contemporaneous.

Ranking puzzles: convert 'A is above B' into an inequality chain and count positions from a fixed end.

Decision-making items: choose the option that follows the stated rule, not the one that seems most humane in isolation.

Indian Parliament: Lok Sabha maximum strength 552; Rajya Sabha maximum 250, of which 12 are nominated.

A bill becomes law after passage by both Houses and presidential assent; the President may return a non-money bill once.

Emergency provisions: national emergency (Article 352), state emergency (Article 356), financial emergency (Article 360).

Election Commission is a constitutional body; the Finance Commission is constituted every five years under Article 280.

International financial institutions: IMF handles balance-of-payments support; the World Bank funds development projects.

Environment: the Montreal Protocol addresses ozone-depleting substances; the Kyoto Protocol preceded the Paris Agreement.

National symbols and institutions: RBI established 1935, nationalised 1949; Supreme Court established 1950.

Hierarchy enables coordination but slows decisions; span of control widens as hierarchy flattens.

Unity of command (one boss) conflicts with the specialist advice of staff units; dual supervision is the symptom.

Centralisation vs decentralisation: centralisation aids uniformity, decentralisation aids responsiveness.

Budget as a control tool: it authorises spending, sets ceilings, and enables variance analysis against actuals.

Audit types: financial audit checks accounts; performance audit checks economy, efficiency, and effectiveness.

Public service motivation theory holds that intrinsic rewards, not only pay, drive official behaviour.

Regulatory bodies (e.g., securities, telecom, competition) are quasi-legislative, quasi-executive, and quasi-judicial at once.

Administrative reforms often fail at implementation because incentives and capacity are not aligned with the design.

Delegated legislation controls: parliamentary scrutiny (laying, committees), judicial review, and procedural consultation.

Hearing rule requires notice of the charges, the evidence relied on, and a genuine opportunity to reply.

A biased decision-maker vitiates the proceeding even if the outcome would have been the same.

Speaking orders: an administrative decision affecting rights must record reasons; unreasoned orders are vulnerable.

Doctrine of pleasure is subject to Article 311 safeguards for civil servants in dismissal, removal, or reduction in rank.

Res extra commercium: things outside commerce (public roads, rivers) cannot be privately owned.

Vicarious liability of the State for torts requires the act to be within the employee's course of employment and not a sovereign function.

Limitation periods bar stale claims; condonation of delay requires sufficient cause to be shown.

Mean, median, mode: use mode for categorical data, median for skewed data, mean for symmetric numeric data.

Range is the simplest spread measure but ignores all interior values; interquartile range resists outliers.

Percentage share in a table = row value ÷ column total × 100; check whether the base is the row or column total.

Growth rate over n years = (final ÷ initial)^(1/n) − 1, the compound annual growth rate.

In a spreadsheet, IF(logical_test, value_if_true, value_if_false) returns one of two results; nest for multiple conditions.

Freeze panes and named ranges make large sheets auditable; document assumptions in a separate notes sheet.

A written submission should state the decision sought at the top and support it with evidence in the body.

Accessibility: add alt text to images and use heading styles so screen readers can navigate the document.

Denotation is the dictionary meaning; connotation is the associated feeling; answer choices often differ only in connotation.

A metaphor asserts a resemblance without 'like'; a simile uses 'like' or 'as'.

Irony states the opposite of the intended meaning; the correct answer identifies the gap between words and intent.

For 'author would most likely agree', the answer must be consistent with the passage's stance, not merely plausible.

Passage comparison items: identify the point of agreement first, then the point of divergence.

A conclusion that merely restates a premise is not a conclusion; reject circular options.

Ratio change: if a : b becomes c : d after adding the same quantity to both, solve (a + x)/(b + x) = c/d.

Partnership with unequal periods: profit ratio = (capital × months) for each partner.

Simple interest difference for 2 years: CI − SI = P(R/100)².

Installments: equate the present value of installments to the principal at the given rate.

Calendar: the day of the week repeats every 7 days; use the remainder of total days divided by 7.

Clock angle = |30H − 5.5M| degrees, taking the smaller angle if the result exceeds 180.

Mensuration: surface area of a sphere 4πr²; curved surface of a cylinder 2πrh.

Averages: if one item is replaced and the mean changes by d, the replacement exceeds the removed item by d × n.

Assumption vs inference: an assumption is taken for granted before the argument; an inference is drawn after it.

Strengthen by supplying a supporting premise; weaken by supplying a counter-premise or an alternative cause.

'Either…or' in logic is inclusive unless 'but not both' is stated.

Negation test for 'must be true': the option that cannot be false given the premises is the answer.

Classification by function: group items by what they do, not by what they are made of.

Rule detection in grids: test rotation, reflection, and translation of a single element across cells.

Data arrangement with two variables (e.g., person and city) needs a grid, not a linear list.

Indian judiciary: Supreme Court judges retire at 65, High Court judges at 62; removal requires impeachment for proved misbehaviour.

The President is the supreme commander of the armed forces; the Defence Minister heads the Ministry of Defence.

Economic survey and budget are presented annually; the Finance Bill gives effect to tax proposals.

GST is a destination-based indirect tax with CGST, SGST, and IGST components; it replaced multiple indirect taxes in 2017.

International organisations: SAARC headquarters Kathmandu, ASEAN Jakarta, African Union Addis Ababa, OPEC Vienna.

Nobel Peace Prize is awarded in Oslo; the other Nobel Prizes are awarded in Stockholm.

Health programmes and their target groups are frequently tested with the launch year attached.

Public choice theory treats officials as self-interested actors; budget maximisation is its predicted behaviour.

Principal-agent remedies: performance contracts, monitoring, incentive alignment, and transparency.

Street-level bureaucracy: front-line officials exercise discretion, which shapes policy as delivered.

Policy evaluation types: process (was it implemented as designed), outcome (did it work), and impact (attribution).

Regulatory capture occurs when the regulator serves the regulated industry rather than the public interest.

Participatory governance requires information disclosure, consultation, and feedback on how input was used.

Administrative capacity includes staff skills, systems, data, and financial resources - all four are necessary.

Ethics infrastructure: codes, training, advisory bodies, reporting channels, and sanctions.

Doctrine of eclipse: a pre-constitutional law inconsistent with fundamental rights is dormant, not dead.

Doctrine of severability: only the offending part of a statute is struck down if it can be separated.

Article 13 makes laws inconsistent with fundamental rights void; 'law' includes ordinances, orders, and customs.

Judicial review of administrative action examines the decision-making process and legality, not the merits.

A tribunal's decision can be challenged by certiorari for jurisdictional error or violation of natural justice.

Public interest immunity can shield state documents, but the court balances it against the needs of justice.

Ombudsman recommendations are generally not binding but carry persuasive and political weight.

Statutory interpretation: literal rule first, then golden rule, then mischief rule; purposive interpretation for rights statutes.

Frequency distribution: class width should be uniform; a histogram's bar area, not height alone, represents frequency for unequal widths.

Cumulative frequency gives the median at the 50th percentile; read it from the ogive.

Outlier detection: a value beyond 1.5 times the interquartile range from the quartiles is a common flag.

Normal distribution: about 68% within one standard deviation, 95% within two, 99.7% within three.

Two-way tables support comparison of subgroups; always compute rates, not raw counts, when group sizes differ.

Spreadsheet audit: trace precedents and dependents to find the source of an error before editing.

Written instructions should use numbered steps, one action per step, and a stated expected result.

A file note should be contemporaneous, dated, signed, and record who said what and when.

Scope: an option that widens the claim beyond the passage ('all countries') is wrong even if plausible.

Quantifiers: 'few' means some but not many; 'a few' means some; the two are not interchangeable.

Cause vs correlation in text: look for 'because', 'owing to', 'led to' to identify causal claims.

A rhetorical question in a passage usually signals the author's stance rather than genuine uncertainty.

For 'except' items in vocabulary, three options must be synonyms of the target; the fourth is the antonym or unrelated.

Sequencing events: anchor on dates or sequence words (first, subsequently, finally) rather than on paragraph position.

Percentage error = |approximate − exact| ÷ exact × 100; use it to justify an approximation.

Ratio comparison: cross-multiply to compare a/b and c/d without decimals.

Weighted average of two groups = (n₁x₁ + n₂x₂) ÷ (n₁ + n₂).

If a sum becomes x times in T years at simple interest, rate = (x − 1) × 100 ÷ T.

Area of a triangle from sides (Heron): s = (a + b + c)/2; area = √(s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)).

Diagonal of a rectangle = √(l² + b²); diagonal of a cube = side × √3.

Probability of a complement: P(not A) = 1 − P(A); apply to 'at least one' questions.

Data interpretation: compute the required difference first when options are far apart; exact division only if needed.

Logical equivalence: 'All A are B' equals 'No A is not B'; use this to test tricky syllogism options.

Conversion of 'Some A are B' gives 'Some B are A'; conversion of 'No A is B' gives 'No B is A'.

Series with two interleaved rules: separate odd and even positions and test each independently.

Cube and dice: opposite faces never appear together; use the three-visible-face rule to deduce the hidden face.

Counting figures: count smallest units, then combinations, systematically by size.

Statement-assumption: a negative assumption ('the problem will not solve itself') is often the required one.

Decision tables: when two rules conflict, apply the more specific rule before the general one.

Indian Constitution: borrowed features include parliamentary system (UK), fundamental rights (US), directive principles (Ireland), emergency provisions (Germany).

The Preamble declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic; 'socialist' and 'secular' were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976).

Fundamental Rights can be enforced against the State; Directive Principles are not enforceable in court.

The Election Commission conducts elections to Parliament, state legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice-President.

International trade: WTO replaced GATT in 1995; disputes go to its Dispute Settlement Body.

Climate: the IPCC assesses science; the UNFCCC is the treaty framework; COP is its conference of parties.

Space: ISRO's Mars Orbiter Mission (2013) made India the first country to reach Mars orbit on its first attempt.

Line-item budgeting controls inputs; performance budgeting links inputs to outputs; outcome budgeting links to results.

Delegated financial powers require a sanction order and are subject to audit; excess spending needs regularisation.

Procurement principles: transparency, competition, value for money, and fair treatment of bidders.

E-procurement reduces discretion and improves audit trails compared with manual tendering.

Service delivery standards (citizen charters) should state the service, the timeline, the officer responsible, and the remedy.

Grievance redressal hierarchy: local officer, appellate authority, then ombudsman.

Inter-agency coordination mechanisms: committees, memoranda of understanding, and single-window clearances.

Monitoring and evaluation differ: monitoring is continuous and tracks inputs/outputs; evaluation is periodic and assesses outcomes.

A law is void for vagueness if a person of ordinary intelligence cannot tell what conduct is prohibited.

Retrospective criminal law is barred by Article 20(1); retrospective civil and tax law is generally permitted.

Double jeopardy (Article 20(2)) bars a second prosecution for the same offence after conviction or acquittal by a competent court.

Self-incrimination protection covers testimonial compulsion, not physical evidence such as fingerprints.

Writ of quo warranto challenges a person's authority to hold a public office.

Writ of habeas corpus tests the legality of detention and can be sought by any person on the detainee's behalf.

Doctrine of legitimate expectation can require a hearing before withdrawing a promised benefit.

Administrative directions bind the administration internally but do not create enforceable rights for citizens unless published and relied upon.

Median of grouped data = L + [(n/2 − cf) ÷ f] × h, where L is the lower class boundary, cf the cumulative frequency before the median class.

Mode of grouped data = L + [(f₁ − f₀) ÷ (2f₁ − f₀ − f₂)] × h.

Standard deviation = √(Σ(x − mean)² ÷ n) for a population; divide by (n − 1) for a sample.

Coefficient of variation = standard deviation ÷ mean × 100; use it to compare variability across datasets with different means.

Skewness: mean > median indicates positive (right) skew; mean < median indicates negative skew.

Index number = current period value ÷ base period value × 100.

In a spreadsheet, COUNTIF and SUMIF aggregate by condition; SUMIFS extends to multiple conditions.

Written communication: place the most important information first (inverted pyramid) for official briefs.

A premise is stated support; an assumption is unstated support; a conclusion is the claim supported.

To find the conclusion, ask what the author is trying to convince the reader of; the rest is support.

A counterargument in a passage is often introduced by 'critics claim' or 'it is argued that'.

For 'which of the following weakens', the correct choice must attack a premise or the inference, not the conclusion directly.

Vocabulary: prefixes (bene-, mal-, circum-) and roots (-dict-, -cred-, -port-) decode unfamiliar words.

A summary must preserve the passage's scope and stance; a neutral restatement of one paragraph is too narrow.

If A is x% more than B, then B is (x ÷ (100 + x)) × 100 percent less than A.

If A is x% less than B, then B is (x ÷ (100 − x)) × 100 percent more than A.

Successive increase then decrease of the same rate r gives a net decrease of r²/100 percent.

A sum doubles at simple interest in 100/R years; it triples in 200/R years.

Work and wages: wages are shared in the ratio of work done, which equals rate × time.

Pipes: if a pipe fills in x hours and another empties in y hours (y > x), the net fill time is xy ÷ (y − x).

Relative speed: same direction = difference of speeds; opposite direction = sum of speeds.

Simple probability of an event = favourable outcomes ÷ total equally likely outcomes.

A valid argument can have false premises; validity concerns form, soundness requires true premises and valid form.

Affirming the consequent ('If P then Q; Q; therefore P') is invalid; denying the antecedent is also invalid.

Modus ponens: 'If P then Q; P; therefore Q' is valid. Modus tollens: 'If P then Q; not Q; therefore not P' is valid.

'Only A are B' means all B are A; the direction reverses compared with 'All A are B'.

Series with mixed operations: test alternating +, ×, −, ÷ patterns before assuming a single rule.

Figure analogy: apply the same transformation to the second pair as the first, and check orientation.

Grouping puzzles: when two items must be together, treat them as one block and adjust the count.

Indian states: reorganisation on linguistic lines in 1956; new states after 2000 include Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand (2000) and Telangana (2014).

Union Territories are administered by the President through an administrator; Delhi and Puducherry have legislative assemblies.

The Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 governs the central bank; monetary policy is set by the Monetary Policy Committee.

International courts: ICJ settles state-to-state disputes; ICC tries individuals for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

Human rights instruments: Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) is non-binding; the two Covenants (1966) are treaties.

Indian economy: the Green Revolution increased foodgrain output through high-yield varieties and irrigation.

Disaster: the National Disaster Management Authority is chaired by the Prime Minister.

Good governance requires the rule of law, which means predictable, impartial enforcement rather than discretionary favours.

Transparency tools: proactive disclosure, open data, and asset declarations.

Accountability is both vertical (to citizens via elections) and horizontal (to legislatures, courts, and audit).

Social accountability tools: citizen report cards, community scorecards, public hearings, and social audits.

Administrative discretion is unavoidable; it is controlled by rules, reasons, review, and participation.

Public service delivery chain: policy, funding, procurement, frontline delivery, and feedback.

Capacity building for e-governance requires process reengineering, not just software installation.

Ethical decision framework: legality, public interest, fairness, and transparency - check all four.

Delegated legislation can be challenged for excessive delegation if the parent Act lays down no policy or standards.

Conditional legislation (e.g., power to bring an Act into force) is valid and not treated as delegation.

A statutory body must act within its statute; acting outside it is ultra vires even if the action is beneficial.

Natural justice can be excluded by statute in narrow cases (e.g., urgent preventive action), but not lightly.

A reasoned order need not be detailed but must show application of mind to the relevant material.

Promissory estoppel binds the government where a clear promise was made and relied upon, unless public interest overrides.

Sovereign immunity in tort has narrowed; the distinction between sovereign and non-sovereign functions is the test.

Contempt of court protects the administration of justice; fair criticism of a judgment is not contempt.

Data quality dimensions: accuracy, completeness, consistency, timeliness, and validity.

Cleaning steps: remove duplicates, standardise formats, handle missing values, and validate ranges.

Missing data: listwise deletion loses information; imputation must be documented and justified.

Visual encoding: position and length are read most accurately; area and colour least accurately.

A table with more than about seven columns should be split or transposed for readability.

Written briefs: use headings, bullet points for parallel items, and bold only for the key decision.

Version control: record author, date, and change summary for every revision.

Official correspondence should avoid abbreviations not defined at first use.

A definition in a passage limits the term's use; an option using the term outside that definition is wrong.

Contrast structures ('not X but Y') make Y the author's position and X the rejected view.

Examples in a passage support a general claim; the question often asks what the example illustrates.

A passage's primary purpose is a verb phrase (to explain, to refute); a topic phrase (the history of X) is not a purpose.

For 'the author implies', the answer must be a necessary consequence of the text, not merely consistent with it.

Watch for negation words (hardly, scarcely, rarely) that invert the apparent meaning of a sentence.

Profit percentage when cost and selling price are known: (SP − CP) ÷ CP × 100; loss is negative profit.

If an article is sold at a gain of x% and the SP is given, CP = SP × 100 ÷ (100 + x).

Marked price and discount: SP = MP × (1 − discount/100); profit% is computed on CP, not MP.

False weight problems: gain% = (error ÷ true weight) × 100 when the seller uses a lighter weight.

Simple interest installments: each installment reduces the principal, so the interest is computed on the reducing balance.

Compound interest compounded half-yearly: use rate/2 and 2T periods.

Population growth: P(1 + r/100)^n; decline uses (1 − r/100)^n.

Ratio of areas of similar figures equals the square of the ratio of corresponding sides.

Analogy with numbers: test difference, ratio, square-plus-one, and digit reversal relationships.

Series completion: check whether the rule alternates between two sequences before assuming a single pattern.

Odd-one-out in words: test meaning category, letter count, vowel pattern, and alphabetical position.

Syllogism with possibility: 'Some A are B' does not rule out 'All A are B'; possibility conclusions may be valid.

Seating with facing directions: draw the row and mark each person's left and right relative to facing.

Puzzle with constraints: list constraints, apply the most restrictive first, and propagate deductions.

Statement-conclusion: reject conclusions that need an assumption not stated in the statement.

Indian Constitution: the President is elected for five years; the office can be vacated by resignation, removal, or death.

The Vice-President is the ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha; the Speaker presides over the Lok Sabha.

The Attorney General is appointed by the President and holds office during the President's pleasure.

The Comptroller and Auditor General audits all expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India.

International: the UN was founded in 1945 with 51 members; the Charter was signed in San Francisco.

The World Health Organization is a UN specialised agency headquartered in Geneva, established in 1948.

Economic indicators: the Human Development Index combines life expectancy, education, and income.

Bureaucratic neutrality means implementing the elected government's lawful policy regardless of personal preference.

Ministerial responsibility: the minister answers to Parliament for the ministry's actions and may resign for failures.

Collective responsibility: the council of ministers stands or falls together and must retain Lok Sabha confidence.

Civil service tenure protects against arbitrary dismissal but must be balanced with performance accountability.

Redress mechanisms: departmental appeals, administrative tribunals, ombudsman, and judicial review.

Regulatory independence requires security of tenure, funding autonomy, and transparent appointment.

Public consultation improves legitimacy but must show how input influenced the decision.

Monitoring indicators should be specific, measurable, and attributable to the intervention.

Article 226 is wider than Article 32: High Courts can issue writs for fundamental rights and for other legal rights.

Article 32 is itself a fundamental right; it cannot be suspended except as the Constitution provides.

A writ petition can be dismissed for alternative remedy if an effective statutory remedy exists, subject to exceptions.

Administrative action must be backed by statutory authority; a 'policy' cannot override a statute.

Bias types: personal, pecuniary, and official (departmental) bias; all vitiate the decision.

A pre-decisional hearing is generally required where a decision adversely affects rights; a post-decisional hearing is a weak substitute.

Statutory interpretation of penal statutes favours the accused where ambiguity exists.

Doctrine of proportionality is applied to test restrictions on fundamental rights and administrative penalties.

Mean of a frequency distribution = Σ(fx) ÷ Σf, where x is the class midpoint.

Median is the value dividing the ordered data into two equal halves; it is unaffected by extreme values.

Quartiles divide data into four parts; interquartile range = Q3 − Q1.

Standard error of the mean = standard deviation ÷ √n; it shrinks as the sample grows.

Correlation coefficient r ranges from −1 to +1; r = 0 means no linear relationship, not no relationship.

Trend line: a scatter plot with a fitted line reveals direction and strength of association.

In a spreadsheet, use absolute references for constants and relative references for row-wise formulas.

Written reports should distinguish facts, analysis, and recommendations with clear headings.

A passage's structure can be problem-solution, cause-effect, compare-contrast, or claim-evidence; identify it to answer purpose questions.

The first and last sentences of a paragraph often carry the topic sentence and the conclusion.

For 'the author mentions X in order to', the answer is the function X serves, not a summary of X.

An option that repeats the passage's words but changes the logical relation is a trap.

Antonym items: consider the word's part of speech and its most common meaning before the rare one.

A sentence with a double negative requires careful parsing; convert it to a positive statement before answering.

Ratio of two quantities after both change by a percentage: compute each new value, then simplify the ratio.

If the numerator increases by x% and the denominator decreases by y%, the fraction multiplies by (100 + x)/(100 − y).

Average of a group changes when a member is added: new total = old total + new value.

Speed and time are inversely proportional for a fixed distance; doubling speed halves time.

Work rate: if A is twice as efficient as B, A's time is half of B's time.

Discount and profit: a trader offering a discount still profits if MP × (1 − d) > CP.

Area of a circle increases by (2r + 1) times when the radius increases by 1 unit, measured in units of π.

Data interpretation: compare ratios by cross-multiplication rather than decimal division.

Formal logic: 'All S are P' is false only if some S is not P; a single counterexample suffices.

Existential import: 'All S are P' does not assert that any S exists.

'Some S are not P' contradicts 'All S are P'; one of them must be true.

Categorical syllogism: a term distributed in the conclusion must be distributed in the premise.

Analogy: the relationship must hold in the same direction; reversed relationships are distractors.

Series: check the difference of differences (second-order differences) when the first differences are irregular.

Figure counting: count by size class and sum; avoid double-counting composite figures.

Indian Constitution: the Seventh Schedule's Union List, State List, and Concurrent List distribute legislative power.

Residuary powers belong to Parliament under Article 248 and Entry 97 of the Union List.

The Concurrent List allows both Parliament and states to legislate; central law prevails on conflict under Article 254.

The Finance Commission recommends the distribution of tax revenue between the centre and states.

The GST Council is a constitutional body under Article 279A, chaired by the Union Finance Minister.

International: the European Union's institutions include the Commission, Council, Parliament, and Court of Justice.

The Asian Development Bank is headquartered in Manila; the New Development Bank in Shanghai.

Public administration dichotomy (Wilson, Goodnow) separates politics from administration; later scholars rejected the separation.

Human relations school (Mayo) showed informal groups and morale affect productivity.

Systems approach treats administration as an input-conversion-output system with feedback.

Contingency theory: there is no single best structure; design depends on environment and task.

Public interest is contested; procedural safeguards (hearing, reasons, review) operationalise it.

Administrative reforms often use a task force, a pilot, and a scaling plan in sequence.

Performance measurement risks gaming; use multiple indicators and audit the data.

Citizen-centric governance places the service recipient at the design stage, not only at the feedback stage.

A statute must be read as a whole; a provision's meaning is drawn from its context, not in isolation.

Expressio unius: express mention of one thing excludes others.

Ejusdem generis: general words following specific words are limited to the same class.

Noscitur a sociis: a word's meaning is known from the words associated with it.

Harmonious construction: conflicting provisions are read together to give effect to both.

A later statute overrides an earlier inconsistent one; a special law prevails over a general law.

Ignorantia juris non excusat: ignorance of the law is no defence.

Delegated legislation must be consistent with the parent Act and with the Constitution.

Data collection methods: census (complete enumeration) vs sample survey (partial, inferential).

Questionnaire design: avoid leading questions, double-barrelled items, and overlapping response categories.

Response rate affects representativeness; a low rate raises non-response bias.

Cross-tabulation shows the joint distribution of two categorical variables.

Scatter plots reveal outliers and nonlinear relationships that a correlation coefficient may hide.

In a spreadsheet, use data tables or scenario managers to test assumptions systematically.

Written communication: define abbreviations at first use and keep a glossary for technical terms.

Records management: classify, index, store, and dispose according to a retention schedule.

A 'must be true' answer follows from the passage; a 'could be true' answer is merely consistent with it.

An inference can combine two stated facts; it cannot introduce a new fact.

Passage with statistics: the correct answer uses the figures accurately and does not overstate the sample.

For 'which of the following is an assumption', negate each option; the argument must fail if the assumption is false.

Vocabulary in context: the same word can have different meanings; choose the meaning that fits the sentence.

A sentence that begins with 'Although' sets up a contrast; the main clause carries the author's point.

Percentage increase then decrease of different rates: net change = a + b + ab/100 with signs.

If a value increases by 20% and then decreases by 20%, the net change is a 4% decrease.

Simple interest for a fraction of a year uses T in years; convert months to years by dividing by 12.

Compound interest compounded quarterly: rate/4 and 4T periods.

Ratio of two numbers is a : b; if both are increased by k, the new ratio is (a + k) : (b + k).

Speed of a train crossing a pole = length ÷ time; crossing a platform = (length + platform) ÷ time.

Average speed for equal times = arithmetic mean of speeds; for equal distances = harmonic mean.

Mensuration: volume of a cuboid = l × b × h; surface area = 2(lb + bh + hl).

A statement is a factual claim; an argument is a statement plus supporting reasons.

An assumption is a hidden premise needed for the conclusion; it is not stated in the argument.

A strong argument is relevant to the statement and based on evidence, not on emotion or authority alone.

Cause-effect: the cause must precede the effect and be connected by a mechanism.

Analogy: the relationship must be essential, not incidental (e.g., both being red is incidental).

Series with letters and numbers mixed: separate the letter and number sequences and solve each.

Figure rotation: track a marked point to distinguish rotation from reflection.

Indian Constitution: the Directive Principles aim at a welfare state and are not enforceable in courts.

Article 44 directs the State to secure a uniform civil code; Article 40 organises village panchayats.

Article 48A directs the State to protect and improve the environment; Article 51A(g) makes it a fundamental duty.

The National Human Rights Commission is a statutory body established in 1993.

The Central Vigilance Commission is a statutory body overseeing vigilance and corruption prevention.

International: the International Labour Organization sets labour standards and is a UN specialised agency.

The World Trade Organization's principles include most-favoured-nation and national treatment.

Budget formulation begins with estimates from spending units, consolidated by the finance ministry.

Vote on account allows spending before the full budget is passed.

Appropriation Bill authorises withdrawal from the Consolidated Fund; the Finance Bill carries tax proposals.

Public Account covers provident funds and small savings; it does not require parliamentary appropriation.

Contingency Fund is placed at the disposal of the President for unforeseen expenditure.

Audit reports of the CAG are examined by the Public Accounts Committee.

Performance audit assesses economy, efficiency, and effectiveness, not just legality.

Outcome budgeting requires measurable indicators and baseline data before allocation.

Article 300A: no person shall be deprived of property except by authority of law; property is no longer a fundamental right.

Eminent domain requires a public purpose and compensation, governed by statute.

Land acquisition must follow the statutory procedure, including a social impact assessment and a hearing.

Regulatory orders must be reasoned and published; an unpublished order cannot bind a person.

A statutory authority must exercise its power for the purpose for which it was granted; collateral purposes are ultra vires.

Doctrine of public trust: the State holds natural resources in trust for the public.

Judicial review of a policy is limited to illegality, irrationality, and procedural impropriety.

A tribunal must be independent and impartial; its members' tenure and appointment affect its validity.

Presentation structure: state the question, show the data, interpret, and recommend.

Charts should have a clear title, labelled axes, units, and a source line.

A pie chart with more than about six slices is hard to read; group small categories into 'other'.

A line chart with more than three series becomes cluttered; use small multiples instead.

Colour should not be the only encoding; add labels or patterns for accessibility.

In a spreadsheet, use conditional formatting for outliers and data validation for input control.

Written notes should use the active voice and name the actor responsible for each action.

Proofread for consistency in names, dates, and units before circulation.

The main idea must cover all paragraphs; a detail that covers one paragraph is not the main idea.

Tone can be identified from adjectives and verbs, not from the topic alone.

An inference is a conclusion drawn from stated facts; it must be necessary, not merely plausible.

For 'which of the following is the author's view', match the option to the passage's stance, not to common opinion.

A sentence that begins with 'It is often said that' usually introduces a view the author will qualify or reject.

Vocabulary: use the surrounding sentence to determine whether the word is positive, negative, or neutral.

Percentage of a percentage: a% of b% of x = (a × b ÷ 10000) × x.

If a number is increased by x% and then decreased by y%, the net change is x − y − xy/100 percent.

Ratio of two numbers is a : b; if the sum is S, the numbers are aS/(a + b) and bS/(a + b).

Simple interest is proportional to principal, rate, and time; doubling any one doubles the interest.

Compound interest exceeds simple interest for periods greater than one year.

Work: if A and B together take t days and A alone takes a days, B alone takes at ÷ (a − t) days.

Speed: distance = speed × time; average speed = total distance ÷ total time.

Data interpretation: compute the required ratio and compare by cross-multiplication.

A syllogism is valid if the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises, regardless of truth.

A sound argument is valid and has true premises.

'Some A are B' is consistent with 'All A are B'; the two are not contradictory.

'No A is B' and 'Some A are B' are contradictory; exactly one is true.

Analogy: the relationship must be the same in both pairs; direction matters.

Series: test differences, then ratios, then alternating patterns, then squares and cubes.

Figure odd-one-out: test symmetry, number of sides, shading, and rotation in that order.

Indian Constitution: the President can promulgate ordinances under Article 123 when Parliament is not in session.

An ordinance must be laid before Parliament and ceases to operate six weeks after reassembly unless approved.

The Governor has a similar ordinance power under Article 213 for states.

The President's rule under Article 356 requires parliamentary approval within two months.

A national emergency under Article 352 can be proclaimed on grounds of war, external aggression, or armed rebellion.

The Election Commission is a multi-member body; the Chief Election Commissioner can be removed only like a Supreme Court judge.

International: the UN Security Council has primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security.

Bureaucracy's dysfunctions include goal displacement, red tape, and resistance to change.

New Public Management emphasises results, competition, and citizen choice over process compliance.

Governance networks involve state, market, and civil society actors in policy delivery.

Accountability requires clear roles, information, and consequences for performance.

Ethics codes must be supported by training, advice, and enforcement to be effective.

Public consultation should be early enough to influence the decision, not only to validate it.

Decentralisation transfers authority to local bodies, which requires fiscal and administrative capacity.

Monitoring data should be used for learning, not only for compliance reporting.

A statute must be interpreted to be constitutional if a reasonable reading supports it.

A law is void for excessive delegation if it delegates essential legislative functions.

A statutory power must be exercised within a reasonable time; unexplained delay can vitiate the decision.

A decision-maker must consider relevant material and exclude irrelevant material.

A policy change must be made fairly; legitimate expectation may require a hearing.

A statutory authority cannot fetter its discretion by a rigid rule; it must consider individual cases.

A tribunal must give reasons for its decision, especially when it departs from precedent.

A writ of certiorari lies against a judicial or quasi-judicial body, not against a purely administrative act.

Mean is affected by every value; median depends on position; mode depends on frequency.

A change in one extreme value shifts the mean but not the median.

Standard deviation is in the same units as the data; variance is in squared units.

A coefficient of variation above 100% indicates high relative variability.

Correlation does not imply causation; a lurking variable can explain both.

A regression line predicts the dependent variable from the independent variable; extrapolation beyond the data is risky.

In a spreadsheet, use PivotTable for grouping and summarising large datasets.

Written reports should state the data source, period, and definitions used.

A passage's main idea is often stated in the first or last paragraph; the body provides support.

A supporting detail answers who, what, when, where, or how; the main idea answers why or what it means.

An inference must follow from the passage; a plausible guess is not an inference.

A 'tone' question asks about the author's attitude, not the subject's mood.

A 'purpose' question asks why the author wrote the passage; the answer is a verb phrase.

Vocabulary: the correct meaning in context fits the sentence's logic and register.

Percentage change = (new − old) ÷ old × 100; the base is the old value.

Successive percentage changes combine multiplicatively, not additively.

Simple interest = P × R × T ÷ 100; compound interest = P(1 + R/100)^T − P.

Work: combined rate = sum of individual rates; time = 1 ÷ combined rate.

Speed: 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s; 1 m/s = 18/5 km/h.

Average speed for equal distances = 2xy ÷ (x + y).

Ratio: divide the total by the sum of parts, then multiply by each part.

Permutations count order; combinations do not.

A valid syllogism's conclusion follows from the premises by form alone.

The contrapositive is equivalent to the original conditional; the converse is not.

'Only if' introduces a necessary condition; 'if' introduces a sufficient condition.

Series: check differences, ratios, alternating patterns, squares, and cubes in that order.

Odd-one-out: identify the shared property and the item that lacks it.

Seating puzzles: fix the most constrained item first, then propagate deductions.

Analogy: verify the transformation on two features before choosing.

Indian Constitution: adopted 26 November 1949, in force 26 January 1950.

Fundamental Rights are in Part III; Directive Principles in Part IV; Fundamental Duties in Article 51A.

The Seventh Schedule lists Union, State, and Concurrent subjects.

The Election Commission, CAG, and UPSC are constitutional bodies.

The IMF and World Bank are headquartered in Washington DC; the WTO in Geneva.

The Sustainable Development Goals are 17 goals adopted in 2015.

The Paris Agreement on climate was adopted in 2015.

Weber's bureaucracy: hierarchy, rules, impersonality, merit, and written records.

Taylor's scientific management: standardised tasks and time-motion study.

Fayol's principles include unity of command, span of control, and scalar chain.

POSDCORB covers planning, organising, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting.

Line agencies command; staff agencies advise.

Delegation transfers authority but not accountability.

Good governance indicators include participation, rule of law, transparency, and accountability.

New Public Management uses performance contracts and citizen charters.

Rule of law: no punishment without a proven breach, equality before the law, and rights from ordinary courts.

Natural justice: no one judges their own cause; hear the other side.

Grounds of review: illegality, irrationality, and procedural impropriety.

Mens rea is the guilty mind; actus reus is the guilty act.

Article 21 protects life and personal liberty; Article 14 guarantees equality.

Judicial review checks legality, not the merits of a policy.

Mandamus commands performance; certiorari quashes; prohibition stops a pending proceeding.

Sub-delegation is invalid unless the statute permits it.

Mean is sensitive to outliers; median and mode are not.

Standard deviation measures spread, not correctness of the mean.

Correlation does not imply causation.

Absolute references ($A$1) stay fixed when copied; relative references (A1) shift.

Common spreadsheet functions: SUM, AVERAGE, COUNT, COUNTA, VLOOKUP, IF.

A circular reference occurs when a formula refers to its own cell.

Formal note structure: subject, reference, date, body, and signature block.

Minutes record decisions and action points, not a verbatim transcript.

Main idea covers the whole passage; a detail covers one paragraph.

Inference must follow necessarily from stated evidence.

Tone words are positive, negative, or neutral; match the passage's tone.

For 'EXCEPT' questions, eliminate the four supported choices.

Analogy: state the relationship in a sentence, then apply it in the same direction.

Strengthen/weaken: attack or support the link between evidence and conclusion.

Passage order: use pronouns and transition words to fix position.

Vocabulary in context: substitute each option into the sentence.

Percentage change = (new − old) ÷ old × 100.

Successive changes combine multiplicatively: a + b + ab/100.

Simple interest = P × R × T ÷ 100; compound interest = P(1 + R/100)^T − P.

Work: together time = xy ÷ (x + y).

Speed: 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s.

Average speed for equal distances = 2xy ÷ (x + y).

Ratio splitting: total ÷ sum of parts, then multiply.

Permutations count order; combinations do not.

Syllogism: a conclusion is valid only if it holds in every arrangement of the premises.

'All A are B' plus 'All B are C' yields 'All A are C'.

Contrapositive is equivalent; converse is not.

'Only if' marks a necessary condition; 'if' marks a sufficient condition.

Number series: check differences, ratios, alternating patterns, squares, cubes.

Odd-one-out: classify by a single shared property.

Seating puzzles: fix the most constrained item first.

Analogy in figures: verify the transformation on two features.

Current-affairs items should rest on stable, verifiable facts.

Constitutional bodies: Election Commission, CAG, UPSC.

Headquarters: UN New York, IMF and World Bank Washington DC, WTO Geneva.

SDGs: 17 goals adopted in 2015.

Constitution adopted 26 November 1949, in force 26 January 1950.

Nobel Prizes: Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, Literature, Peace, Economic Sciences.

For 'first in India' items, anchor on the year and the person.

Currency and central bank pairings: RBI, Federal Reserve, ECB, Bank of England.

Weber's ideal bureaucracy: hierarchy, rules, impersonality, merit, records.

Taylor standardises tasks; Fayol addresses the manager's principles.

POSDCORB: planning, organising, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, budgeting.

Line agencies command; staff agencies advise.

Good governance indicators: participation, rule of law, transparency, responsiveness, equity, effectiveness, accountability.

New Public Management uses market tools and performance contracts.

Delegation transfers authority, not accountability.

RTI and citizen charters operationalise transparency; social audit is a demand-side tool.

Rule of law (Dicey): no punishment without a proven breach, equality before the law, rights from ordinary courts.

Natural justice: nemo iudex in causa sua and audi alteram partem.

Grounds of review: illegality, irrationality, procedural impropriety.

Mens rea is the guilty mind; actus reus is the guilty act.

Article 21 includes due process; Article 14 guarantees equality.

Judicial review checks legality, not the merits.

Mandamus commands; certiorari quashes; prohibition stops.

Sub-delegation is invalid unless expressly permitted.

Mean is sensitive to outliers; median and mode are not.

Standard deviation measures spread, not correctness.

Correlation does not imply causation.

Absolute references stay fixed; relative references shift.

Functions: SUM, AVERAGE, COUNT, COUNTA, VLOOKUP, IF.

A circular reference must be broken before calculation.

Formal note: subject, reference, date, body, signature block.

Minutes record decisions and action points.

Main idea covers the whole passage; a detail covers one paragraph.

Inference must follow necessarily from stated evidence.

Tone words are positive, negative, or neutral.

For 'EXCEPT' questions, eliminate the four supported choices.

Analogy: state the relationship, then apply it in the same direction.

Strengthen/weaken: attack or support the link between evidence and conclusion.

Passage order: use pronouns and transition words.

Vocabulary in context: substitute each option into the sentence.

Percentage change = (new − old) ÷ old × 100.

Successive changes combine multiplicatively.

Simple interest = P × R × T ÷ 100; compound interest = P(1 + R/100)^T − P.

Work: together time = xy ÷ (x + y).

Speed: 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s.

Average speed for equal distances = 2xy ÷ (x + y).

Ratio splitting: total ÷ sum of parts.

Permutations count order; combinations do not.