Civil Service Basic key terms

A conclusion drawn from stated evidence rather than stated outright. In reading comprehension, an inference must follow necessarily from the passage, not from personal opinion or outside knowledge.

The central point a passage is built to convey. It is broader than any single detail and usually expressible in one sentence covering the whole text, not just its opening line.

The writer's attitude toward the subject, conveyed through word choice and emphasis. Options such as critical, neutral, or approving describe tone; the answer must match the whole passage, not one phrase.

An unstated belief the argument depends on. If negating the statement would destroy the argument, it is a necessary assumption; this negation check is the standard test.

A stated reason or piece of evidence offered in support of a conclusion. Premises are what the arguer asserts as true; they are not what the arguer is trying to prove.

The claim an argument is trying to establish. It is usually signalled by words such as therefore, thus, or hence, and everything else in the passage supports it.

A ratio compares two quantities of the same kind; a proportion states that two ratios are equal. Problems are solved by cross-multiplication or by scaling both parts by the same factor.

A fraction expressed out of one hundred. Successive percentage changes do not simply add: a 20% rise then a 20% fall leaves the original value 4% lower, not unchanged.

The sum of a set of values divided by how many values there are, also called the arithmetic mean. Total equals average multiplied by count, which is often the fastest route to a solution.

A mean in which each value counts in proportion to its weight rather than equally. It always lies between the smallest and largest values and shifts toward the group with the greater weight.

Simple interest is charged only on the original principal; compound interest is charged on principal plus accumulated interest. Over more than one period, compound interest always exceeds simple interest at the same rate.

Distance equals speed multiplied by time. For a fixed distance, speed and time are inversely related, so doubling speed halves travel time; average speed over two equal distances is the harmonic mean, not the simple average.

A deductive argument with two premises and a conclusion, as in all A are B, all B are C, therefore all A are C. Validity depends on form alone, even if the terms describe unreal things.

Reasoning from general rules to a guaranteed specific conclusion. If the premises are true and the form is valid, the conclusion cannot be false; contrast with induction, which only makes conclusions probable.

A property of argument form: the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. An argument can be valid yet have false premises, so validity is not the same as truth of content.

Overlapping circles representing sets, used to test categorical arguments. Shading shows empty regions and marks show existing members; checking whether the conclusion's region is already shaded settles validity.

A sequence where a rule links consecutive terms, such as adding a constant, multiplying, or alternating two patterns. Differences between terms are examined first, then ratios, then second differences.

A pair relationship question asking for a term related to a third word or figure in the same way. The precise relation must be identified and matched, not merely a loose association.

The fundamental law establishing the structure of the state, the powers of its organs, and the rights of citizens. Ordinary laws inconsistent with it are invalid, and amendment usually follows a special procedure.

The principle that government authority must be exercised according to published law, applied equally to officials and citizens, with no arbitrary power. It implies legal limits on executive action and independent courts.

The power of courts to examine whether legislation or executive action complies with the constitution or higher law and to declare it invalid if it does not.

Two minimum fair-hearing guarantees: no one may judge their own cause, and each side must be heard. Decisions made in breach are typically voidable regardless of the merits.

Rules made by the executive or an agency under authority granted by a parent statute. It must stay within the powers conferred, and courts may strike down rules that exceed that authority.

Latin for beyond the powers. An act is ultra vires when a public body exceeds the authority given by statute or constitution, making the act invalid rather than merely improper.

The freedom officials have to choose among lawful options. Discretion is not unlimited: it must be exercised in good faith, for the purpose the statute intends, and without irrelevant considerations.

The obligation of officials to answer for their decisions to a higher authority or the public and to accept consequences. It requires clear reporting lines and enforceable remedies, not merely good intentions.

Openness about how decisions are made and public money is spent, including accessible records and published criteria. It enables scrutiny and is a precondition for meaningful accountability.

A hierarchical administrative system organised by written rules, defined jurisdictions, and salaried officials. It provides predictability and continuity but is criticised for rigidity and slow response.

The number of subordinates reporting directly to one supervisor. A wide span flattens the hierarchy but demands more delegation; a narrow span increases supervision layers and slows decisions.

A legal entitlement for citizens to obtain records held by public bodies, subject to defined exemptions such as national security or personal privacy. Refusals must normally be reasoned and appealable.

A brief internal written message with a heading, purpose statement, body, and required action. It is impersonal and factual, unlike a letter, and normally omits salutations and complimentary closings.

A written instruction or information sent simultaneously to many recipients of the same class. It carries one authoritative message, is dated and referenced, and is filed for audit and future reference.

The official record of what was decided at a meeting, with attendees, agenda items, and action points. They record decisions and reasons, not a verbatim transcript of discussion.

The file-work sequence in public offices: a noting officer records facts and recommends a course of action on the file, and the drafting officer prepares the outgoing communication once approved.

Reading values and trends from tables, charts, or graphs to answer specific questions. Care is needed with units, scales, and whether a figure is absolute or a percentage of a changing base.

A single value summarising a data set: mean, median, or mode. The median resists distortion by extreme values, while the mean is sensitive to outliers, so choice of measure matters.

A collection of distinct objects treated as a whole. Union joins members of either set, intersection keeps only shared members, and the complement holds elements outside the set within the universe considered.