CLEP American Government key terms

A system in which power is divided between a national government and state governments, each with its own constitutionally protected authority. The Constitution grants certain powers to the national government, reserves others to the states, and leaves some shared.

The division of governmental authority among legislative, executive, and judicial branches so that no single branch holds all power. Each branch performs distinct functions and rests on a separate base of political accountability.

Constitutional provisions that let each branch limit the others, such as the presidential veto, Senate confirmation of judges, and judicial review of statutes, so that no branch can dominate the government.

The Article I clause granting Congress power to make laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers. It is the constitutional basis for implied powers and has allowed broad expansion of federal legislative authority.

The Article VI provision making the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties the supreme law of the land, binding state judges even when state law conflicts. It anchors national authority within the federal system.

The Article I clause giving Congress power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce. Interpreted broadly since the New Deal, it supports much federal regulation of the economy and of civil rights.

Powers not delegated to the national government and not prohibited to the states, retained by the states or the people under the Tenth Amendment. They include policing, education, and most family law.

A Senate tactic in which extended debate prevents a vote on a bill. Ending the debate requires a supermajority of sixty senators under cloture, so a large minority can block legislation.

The Senate procedure to end debate on a measure, requiring sixty votes. It limits filibusters but does not guarantee passage of the underlying bill.

Drawing legislative district boundaries to favor a party, an incumbent, or a group. Courts restrict versions that dilute minority voting strength or otherwise violate equal protection.

The presiding officer chosen by the House majority, who controls recognition, committee assignments, and the floor schedule. The Speaker is second in line to the presidency after the vice president.

A temporary joint committee of House and Senate members that reconciles differences between the two chambers' versions of a bill before final passage.

A directive from the president to federal agencies, issued under statutory or constitutional authority, that manages operations and policy without new legislation. Courts may strike down orders that exceed legal authority.

The president's constitutional power to reject legislation. A regular veto returns the bill to Congress, which can override it with two-thirds votes in each chamber; a pocket veto occurs when Congress adjourns within ten days.

The power of courts to declare acts of Congress, the president, or the states unconstitutional. Established in Marbury v. Madison, it makes the judiciary a final interpreter of constitutional meaning.

The judicial principle of standing by precedent so that similar cases are decided consistently. It promotes stability and predictability, though courts may overrule precedent, especially in constitutional cases.

An order from a higher court, mainly the Supreme Court, directing a lower court to send up its record for review. The Court grants certiorari in only a small fraction of the petitions it receives.

A friend-of-the-court filing by a person or organization that is not a party to a case, offering information, arguments, or perspective intended to influence the court's decision.

The latitude agencies have in interpreting and applying laws, deciding how rules are written and enforced. Discretion grows when statutes are vague or delegate broad authority to administrators.

The process by which the Supreme Court has applied most Bill of Rights protections to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause, one right at a time.

A constitutional guarantee that government may not deprive a person of life, liberty, or property without fair procedures and, substantively, without adequate justification. It appears in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments.

The First Amendment prohibition on laws respecting an establishment of religion. It limits government support for religion and shapes disputes over school prayer, public aid, and religious displays.

Government action that prevents expression before it occurs, such as an injunction against publication. Courts presume such restraints unconstitutional except in narrow, extraordinary circumstances.

The rule that evidence obtained through unconstitutional searches or seizures generally cannot be used against a defendant at trial. Its main purpose is to deter police misconduct.

The Fourteenth Amendment guarantee that no state may deny any person the equal protection of the laws. It underlies challenges to discriminatory classifications and requires courts to apply different levels of scrutiny.

The most demanding standard of judicial review, used for suspect classifications and fundamental rights. Government must show a compelling interest and narrow tailoring for the policy to survive.

Policies that consider race, ethnicity, or sex to expand opportunities for groups that faced past discrimination. Courts subject them to strict scrutiny, and their use in college admissions has been sharply limited.

A federal law barring discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment, public accommodations, and federally funded programs. It authorized enforcement and shaped later civil rights litigation.

An organized association that seeks to influence public policy on behalf of shared interests, using lobbying, electioneering, litigation, and public campaigns. Groups vary widely in resources, membership, and access.

An organization that pools contributions from members, employees, or supporters and donates to candidates, parties, or causes, subject to federal registration and contribution limits.

Efforts to influence legislators and officials, typically through direct meetings, committee testimony, and information supplied by registered lobbyists. It is protected by the First Amendment right to petition government.

The difficulty groups face when people can enjoy collective benefits, such as cleaner air or higher wages, without joining or paying dues. Groups respond with selective incentives or compulsory membership.

A durable shift in the partisan balance, usually following a critical election, in which coalitions change and one party gains lasting dominance. Examples include the elections of 1860 and 1932.

The view that policy results from competition among many groups, with no single elite controlling outcomes. Critics argue that resources are unequal, so some interests are better represented than others.

The lifelong process by which people acquire political attitudes, values, and behaviors through family, schools, peers, media, and major events.

A person's belief that his or her political action can be understood and can influence government. Low efficacy is associated with lower participation, especially among younger and disadvantaged citizens.

A survey using a representative sample to estimate the views of a larger population. Accuracy depends on random sampling, unbiased question wording, and honest responses.

The percentage of eligible or registered citizens who cast ballots. U.S. turnout is shaped by registration rules, election laws, competitiveness, and demographic factors.

Casting a ballot based on evaluation of past performance, such as the state of the economy or an incumbent's record, rather than on promises about the future.

The consistent difference between men and women in party identification and voting behavior, with women more likely than men to support Democratic candidates in recent decades.