CLEP Introductory Psychology cheat sheet

Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology laboratory (1879, Leipzig) and used introspection to study conscious experience.

Structuralism (Titchener) analyzed consciousness into elements; functionalism (James) asked how mental processes aid adaptation.

Psychoanalytic (Freud): unconscious conflict and early experience; Behaviorist (Watson, Skinner): observable behavior and environmental control.

Humanistic (Maslow, Rogers): self-actualization and free will; Cognitive: mental processing of information; Biological: physiology and genetics.

Correlational studies yield a correlation coefficient r from -1 to +1; correlation does not establish causation.

Experiment: independent variable is manipulated, dependent variable is measured; random assignment controls confounds.

Descriptive statistics summarize data (mean, median, mode, standard deviation); inferential statistics test whether results generalize.

Ethical safeguards: informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing, and minimization of harm; deception requires later debriefing.

Neuron parts: dendrites receive, soma integrates, axon conducts, terminal buttons release neurotransmitter across the synapse.

Resting potential is about -70 mV; an action potential is an all-or-nothing depolarization that travels down the axon.

Major neurotransmitters: acetylcholine (muscle, memory), dopamine (reward, movement), serotonin (mood), GABA (inhibition), norepinephrine (arousal).

Hindbrain: medulla (vital functions), pons (sleep, arousal), cerebellum (balance, coordination); midbrain: reticular formation (alertness).

Limbic system: amygdala (emotion, fear), hippocampus (memory formation), hypothalamus (hunger, temperature, endocrine control).

Cerebral cortex lobes: frontal (motor, planning), parietal (somatosensory), temporal (auditory), occipital (visual).

Split-brain research: the corpus callosum connects hemispheres; language is typically lateralized to the left hemisphere.

Endocrine system: pituitary is the master gland; adrenal glands release cortisol and epinephrine during stress.

Absolute threshold: minimum stimulus intensity detected 50% of the time; difference threshold: smallest detectable change (Weber's law).

Signal detection theory separates sensory sensitivity (d') from response bias; hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection.

Sensory adaptation is decreased responsiveness to a constant stimulus; transduction converts physical energy into neural signals.

Vision: rods (dim light, peripheral, no color) and cones (color, detail, fovea); trichromatic and opponent-process theories explain color.

Audition: pitch from frequency, loudness from amplitude; place theory and frequency theory explain pitch coding.

Gestalt principles: proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, figure-ground organize perceptual input.

Depth cues: binocular (retinal disparity, convergence) and monocular (linear perspective, interposition, relative size).

Perceptual constancy maintains stable perception of size, shape, and color despite changing retinal images.

EEG stages of sleep: beta (awake), alpha (relaxed), theta (N1), sleep spindles/K-complexes (N2), delta (N3 slow wave), REM.

Sleep cycles last about 90 minutes; REM features rapid eye movements, muscle atonia, and vivid dreaming.

REM and NREM dreams differ; REM rebound occurs after sleep deprivation.

Circadian rhythm is regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus and influenced by light exposure and melatonin.

Hypnosis: altered attention and suggestibility; divided-consciousness and social-influence theories explain hypnotic effects.

Meditation produces relaxation and altered attention; it does not require loss of awareness.

Psychoactive drugs: depressants (alcohol, barbiturates), stimulants (caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines), hallucinogens (LSD), opiates.

Tolerance requires larger doses for the same effect; withdrawal produces opposite effects when the drug is stopped.

Classical conditioning (Pavlov): neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus eliciting conditioned response.

Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination describe classical conditioning dynamics.

Operant conditioning (Skinner): behavior is shaped by consequences; reinforcement increases, punishment decreases behavior.

Positive adds a stimulus; negative removes a stimulus; both reinforcement types increase the target behavior.

Schedules: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval; variable schedules resist extinction most.

Observational learning (Bandura): modeling and vicarious reinforcement; four steps are attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.

Taste aversion is a biologically prepared form of learning that can occur with a single pairing.

Latent learning (Tolman) occurs without reinforcement and appears when performance is later rewarded.

Three memory stores: sensory memory (brief), short-term/working memory (about 7±2 items), long-term memory (unlimited).

Encoding, storage, and retrieval are the three memory processes; elaborative rehearsal improves encoding over maintenance rehearsal.

Serial position effect: primacy reflects long-term storage, recency reflects short-term storage.

Levels of processing: semantic encoding is deeper and more durable than acoustic or visual encoding.

Problem solving: algorithms guarantee a solution; heuristics (availability, representativeness) are fast but error-prone.

Confirmation bias favors information supporting existing beliefs; functional fixedness blocks novel use of objects.

Language: phonemes (sound units), morphemes (meaning units), syntax (grammar), semantics (meaning); critical period affects acquisition.

Intelligence theories: Spearman's g, Gardner's multiple intelligences, Sternberg's triarchic theory; IQ scores are standardized with mean 100.

Drive-reduction theory: biological need creates a drive; homeostasis restores equilibrium through goal-directed behavior.

Maslow's hierarchy: physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, self-actualization (lower needs generally precede higher).

Intrinsic motivation arises from internal interest; extrinsic motivation from external rewards; overjustification can reduce intrinsic interest.

Achievement motivation and arousal: Yerkes-Dodson law predicts optimal performance at moderate arousal, lower for complex tasks.

Hunger is regulated by the hypothalamus; leptin signals satiety, ghrelin signals hunger.

James-Lange: body reaction precedes emotion; Cannon-Bard: physiological arousal and emotion occur simultaneously.

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory: emotion requires physiological arousal plus cognitive labeling.

Facial feedback hypothesis: facial expressions can influence emotional experience; universal facial expressions support basic emotions.

Piaget stages: sensorimotor (object permanence), preoperational (egocentrism, conservation failure), concrete operational, formal operational.

Erikson's psychosocial stages pair a crisis with a virtue across the lifespan (trust vs. mistrust through integrity vs. despair).

Kohlberg's moral stages: preconventional (punishment/obedience), conventional (social approval/law), postconventional (universal principles).

Attachment: secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized; Ainsworth's strange situation assesses attachment style.

Temperament is biologically based; easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up categories describe infant styles.

Prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, fetal stages; teratogens cause harm during critical periods.

Aging: fluid intelligence declines earlier than crystallized intelligence; crystallized knowledge tends to remain stable or grow.

Baumrind parenting styles: authoritative (high warmth and control), authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful.

Psychoanalytic theory: id (pleasure principle), ego (reality principle), superego (morality); defense mechanisms reduce anxiety.

Defense mechanisms include repression, projection, displacement, rationalization, reaction formation, and sublimation.

Trait theory: Allport's cardinal, central, and secondary traits; Eysenck's extraversion and neuroticism dimensions.

Big Five (OCEAN): openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

Humanistic theory: Rogers's unconditional positive regard and Maslow's self-actualization emphasize growth and self-concept.

Social-cognitive theory (Bandura): reciprocal determinism among behavior, personal factors, and environment; self-efficacy matters.

Projective tests (Rorschach, TAT) are ambiguous stimuli; self-report inventories (MMPI, Big Five) are standardized.

Locus of control (Rotter): internal versus external beliefs about control over outcomes.

DSM-5 classifies disorders by symptoms; diagnosis requires clinically significant distress or impairment.

Anxiety disorders: generalized anxiety, panic disorder, phobias, social anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Mood disorders: major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder; biological and cognitive factors contribute.

Schizophrenia symptoms: positive (delusions, hallucinations) and negative (flat affect, avolition); dopamine hypothesis is prominent.

Personality disorders (clusters A, B, C) include antisocial, borderline, and narcissistic patterns; they are enduring and inflexible.

Biopsychosocial model integrates biological, psychological, and social factors; diathesis-stress model posits vulnerability plus stress.

Health psychology: stress affects immune function; Type A behavior and hostility relate to cardiovascular risk.

General adaptation syndrome (Selye): alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages of stress response.

Psychoanalysis: free association, dream analysis, transference, and resistance reveal unconscious conflict.

Behavior therapy: systematic desensitization (counterconditioning), exposure, token economies, and aversion therapy.

Cognitive therapy (Beck) targets distorted thoughts; cognitive-behavioral therapy combines cognitive and behavioral techniques.

Humanistic therapy (Rogers): client-centered with empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard.

Biomedical treatments: antipsychotics (dopamine), antidepressants (SSRIs, MAOIs), lithium (bipolar), anxiolytics, and ECT.

Antidepressants have a delayed onset of several weeks; side effects and adherence require monitoring.

Group and family therapy use interpersonal dynamics; self-help groups provide peer support.

Effectiveness: psychotherapy and medication are often combined; evidence-based practice matches treatment to disorder.

Attribution: internal (dispositional) versus external (situational); fundamental attribution error overweights disposition in others.

Cognitive dissonance (Festinger): inconsistency between attitudes and behavior motivates attitude change.

Conformity (Asch): group pressure changes judgments; obedience (Milgram) increases with authority and proximity.

Bystander effect: helping decreases as the number of bystanders increases; diffusion of responsibility explains it.

Group dynamics: social facilitation, social loafing, deindividuation, group polarization, and groupthink.

Prejudice involves attitudes; discrimination involves behavior; stereotypes are generalized beliefs.

Persuasion: central route (argument quality) versus peripheral route (cues); source credibility and attractiveness matter.

Interpersonal attraction: proximity, similarity, physical attractiveness, and reciprocity of liking predict attraction.