CLEP Introductory Psychology key terms

The view that knowledge should come from observation, measurement, and experiment rather than from intuition or authority. It underlies psychology's reliance on testable evidence gathered through systematic methods.

A precise statement of how a variable will be measured or manipulated in a study, such as defining stress as a score on a specific questionnaire. It lets other researchers replicate the work.

A number from -1.00 to +1.00 expressing the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two measured variables. It reveals association only, never which variable causes the other.

A study in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable and randomly assigns participants to conditions, so that causal conclusions become possible. Control of extraneous variables is central to its logic.

Placing participants into experimental conditions by chance so that groups are roughly equivalent before treatment begins. It spreads individual differences evenly and supports causal inference.

An uncontrolled factor that changes along with the independent variable and could plausibly produce the observed outcome. Its presence makes causal claims about the manipulated variable unsafe.

A nerve cell that receives, integrates, and transmits electrochemical signals. It typically has dendrites for input, a cell body, and an axon ending in terminals that release neurotransmitter.

A brief electrical impulse that travels down an axon when stimulation reaches threshold. It follows an all-or-none law and is the basic unit of neural signaling.

A chemical released from an axon terminal that crosses a synapse and binds to receptors on another cell, exciting or inhibiting it. Examples include dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine.

The tendency for one hemisphere of the brain to take the lead on particular functions, such as language typically relying more on the left hemisphere. The two sides communicate through the corpus callosum.

The weakest level of a stimulus that a person can detect about half of the time under ideal conditions. It marks the boundary between sensing nothing and sensing something.

The smallest change in a stimulus that a person can reliably notice, also called the just noticeable difference. Weber's law states that it grows in proportion to the original stimulus intensity.

Reduced responsiveness to an unchanging stimulus after prolonged exposure, as when a smell fades from awareness. It frees attention for detecting new or changing information.

The tendency to perceive objects as keeping stable size, shape, and color despite large changes in the retinal image. It shows that perception is an active construction rather than a copy of input.

Interpreting sensory input using prior knowledge, expectations, and context. It allows fast recognition of incomplete or ambiguous stimuli and complements bottom-up analysis of raw features.

A roughly 24-hour cycle of biological activity, including sleep-wake patterns and body temperature. Light exposure is the main cue that keeps the cycle aligned with day and night.

A recurring sleep stage marked by rapid eye movements, near-paralysis of voluntary muscles, and vivid dreaming. Brain activity resembles wakefulness even though the sleeper is hard to arouse.

Learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired repeatedly with a stimulus that already produces that response. Pavlov's dogs salivating to a tone is the classic demonstration.

Learning in which the consequences of a behavior change how often it occurs. Reinforcement increases a response and punishment decreases it, with timing and schedules shaping the result.

The gradual weakening of a learned response when the reinforcement or conditioned stimulus pairing stops. The response may reappear briefly after a pause, a phenomenon called spontaneous recovery.

A rule determining how often and when a behavior is rewarded. Ratio schedules count responses and interval schedules mark time, while variable schedules usually produce the most persistent responding.

A limited-capacity system that holds information briefly while it is being used for thinking, reasoning, or problem solving. It coordinates attention and draws on long-term memory as needed.

The initial process of transforming sensory information into a form that memory can store. Deeper, more meaningful processing generally produces stronger later recall than shallow repetition.

A quick mental shortcut that yields fast but sometimes biased judgments. The availability and representativeness shortcuts are common examples used in everyday decision making.

Engaging in an activity because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, rather than for an external reward. It tends to sustain effort and creativity over the long term.

Engaging in an activity to obtain an external outcome such as money, praise, or avoiding punishment. Strong external rewards can sometimes undercut existing interest in the task.

In Piaget's theory, interpreting new experiences using existing mental schemas, such as calling a zebra a horse. It contrasts with accommodation, which changes the schema to fit new information.

The understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight, typically developing near the end of infancy. Its absence is shown when a baby stops searching for a hidden toy.

A strong emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver that provides a secure base for exploration. Its quality is often assessed with a structured separation-and-reunion procedure.

A person's general belief about whether outcomes depend on their own actions or on outside forces. An internal orientation credits personal effort, while an external one credits luck or powerful others.

A person's belief in their capability to perform the actions needed to reach a goal. Strong beliefs tend to increase persistence and the choice of challenging tasks.

The co-occurrence of two or more disorders in the same person during the same period. It is common in clinical settings and complicates diagnosis, treatment planning, and research.

A widely used manual that lists criteria for diagnosing mental disorders, organizing symptoms into categories. It aims to improve reliability among clinicians while remaining a work in progress.

A structured treatment that targets distorted thoughts and maladaptive behaviors, often with homework between sessions. It is well supported for anxiety, depression, and several other conditions.

A behavioral technique that pairs relaxation with gradual exposure to feared stimuli, building a hierarchy from mild to intense. It is commonly used to reduce phobic anxiety.

The tendency to explain others' behavior mainly by their character while underestimating situational pressures. The bias is weaker when people explain their own actions.

The uncomfortable tension felt when beliefs and actions conflict. People often reduce it by changing an attitude or adding justification rather than by changing the behavior.

Changing one's behavior or expressed beliefs to match those of a group. It increases with group unanimity and size and is classically studied with judgments of line lengths.

Following the direct commands of an authority figure, even when the request conflicts with personal judgment. Classic research showed that situational pressure can override individual values.