Learning
What to know
Classical conditioning (Pavlov): a neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) eliciting a conditioned response (CR). Key phenomena: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. Little Albert demonstrated conditioned fear. Operant conditioning (Skinner) shapes behavior through consequences: reinforcement increases behavior, punishment decreases it; positive adds a stimulus, negative removes one. Schedules: fixed/variable ratio (based on responses) and interval (based on time); variable schedules resist extinction best. Observational learning (Bandura) shows modeling-children imitated aggression seen in others.
Cognitive elements
Tolman's latent learning and cognitive maps show learning without immediate reinforcement. Insight learning (Köhler) is sudden problem-solving. Preparedness (Garcia's taste-aversion research) shows some associations form easily, challenging strict behaviorism.
Traps
Watch the positive/negative wording-negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by removing something unpleasant; punishment weakens. Don't confuse classical (involuntary, stimulus-stimulus) with operant (voluntary, response-consequence). Extinction is not forgetting; spontaneous recovery can occur.
Rule of thumb
Ask "does the consequence increase or decrease the behavior?" Increase = reinforcement; decrease = punishment. Then ask "is something added (positive) or removed (negative)?"
Worked example
A child whines until a parent gives candy. The candy (added) increases whining, so for the child it is positive reinforcement; for the parent, giving candy removes the whining, so it is negative reinforcement for the parent.