CSET English Language Development (205/206/207) cheat sheet

Phoneme: smallest unit of sound that distinguishes meaning (e.g., /p/ vs. /b/ in pat/bat); English has about 44 phonemes, while the number of graphemes is far smaller, so phoneme-grapheme mapping is many-to-one and one-to-many.

Morpheme types: free morphemes stand alone (dog, run); bound morphemes must attach. Inflectional affixes (-s plural, -ed past, -ing progressive, -er/-est comparative, -'s possessive) never change grammatical category; derivational affixes (un-, -ness, -tion) usually do.

Syntax hierarchy: phrase structure builds NP, VP, PP, and CP; a sentence requires a subject and a finite verb in English, and word order (SVO) carries grammatical meaning that morphology carries in many other languages.

Semantics vs. pragmatics: semantics concerns literal meaning and sense relations (synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, homonymy); pragmatics concerns intended meaning in context, including speech acts, implicature, and Gricean maxims.

BICS and CALP (Cummins): conversational fluency develops in roughly 1-3 years of exposure; academic language proficiency typically needs 5-7 years, so a student who sounds fluent may still lack the CALP required for content learning.

Krashen's monitor model: acquisition is subconscious and distinct from conscious learning; the input hypothesis requires comprehensible input at i+1; the affective filter hypothesis holds that anxiety, low motivation, or low self-confidence blocks intake.

Transfer and contrastive analysis: L1 knowledge transfers to L2, producing positive transfer where structures align and interference where they differ (e.g., adjective-noun order, article use, final consonant clusters); error analysis treats many errors as developmental, not evidence of L1 deficiency.

Stages of second-language development: pre-production (silent period), early production (single words and chunks), speech emergence (short phrases with errors), intermediate fluency (complex sentences, some academic gaps), and advanced fluency.

Proficiency-level descriptors in the ELD standards move from emerging (uses single words, formulaic phrases, and visuals) through expanding (produces connected sentences, growing vocabulary) to bridging (uses extended discourse and academic registers close to grade-level peers).

Formative assessment cycle: establish a content-and-language objective, gather evidence through observation checklists, oral interviews, and writing samples, then adjust grouping or scaffolds; summative ELD assessment measures progress against the same proficiency descriptors.

CELDT/ELPAC-style test sections assess listening, speaking, reading, and writing separately; an overall score does not override a weak skill area, so placement decisions should use the domain-level scores.

Lesson design for ELD: content objective plus language objective (function, form, and fluency), explicit modeling, guided practice with scaffolds, structured interaction, and independent application; the language objective names the linguistic demand, not the topic.

Scaffolding types: graphic organizers, sentence frames and starters, word banks, visual glossaries, modeled think-alouds, chunked text, and native-language support; scaffolds are temporary and are removed as proficiency grows.

Interaction strategies that raise output: think-pair-share, numbered heads together, jigsaw, and cooperative groups with assigned roles; research supports output plus negotiation of meaning, not input alone, for developing accuracy and fluency.

Vocabulary instruction should be tiered: Tier 1 everyday words, Tier 2 cross-content academic words (analyze, contrast, evidence), Tier 3 domain-specific terms; Tier 2 words yield the largest return for ELs across subjects.

Assessment accommodations for ELs include extended time, bilingual glossaries, oral directions, and testing in a familiar setting; translation of the test itself changes the construct being measured and is not an appropriate accommodation for an English proficiency test.

SDAIE (sheltered instruction) delivers grade-level content in English with modified language demands - visuals, demonstrations, hands-on tasks, and reduced linguistic load - without watering down the content standard.

SIOP components: lesson preparation, building background, comprehensible input, strategies, interaction, practice/application, lesson delivery, and review/assessment; each component is observable in a lesson and used for coaching feedback.

Cummins' quadrant model: high cognitive demand plus high context support (e.g., hands-on science with visuals) is the target zone; high demand with low context (lecture-only abstract text) is the highest-risk zone for ELs.

Culturally responsive practice: learn students' home cultures and languages, use culturally familiar examples and texts, hold high expectations, and avoid deficit framing that attributes low achievement to student or family characteristics.

Family and community engagement: provide information in home languages, use interpreters rather than child interpreters, schedule meetings flexibly, and build two-way communication; parent involvement correlates with attendance and achievement.

Equity versus equality: equal treatment gives every student the same input; equity allocates different supports (scaffolds, time, materials) so that ELs can reach the same content standards.

Legal and policy foundations: Lau v. Nichols (1974) held that identical instruction in a language students do not understand denies meaningful access; Castañeda v. Pickett (1981) set the three-prong test of sound theory, implementation, and evaluation.

Language policy models: transitional bilingual education exits to English quickly; developmental/maintenance bilingual education builds both languages; dual immersion serves ELs and English speakers together; structured English immersion uses English-only sheltered content.

Emerging-level students: pair every oral direction with a visual or gesture, accept one-word and formulaic responses, and do not penalize the silent period as noncompliance.

Expanding-level students: expect connected sentences with errors; correct errors selectively (those that block meaning or target the lesson's language objective) rather than every error.

Bridging-level students: shift scaffolds toward academic register, text structure, and precise word choice; reduce sentence frames and increase independent extended writing and discussion.

If a student's oral fluency is strong but reading and writing lag, treat the gap as a CALP issue and provide academic-language instruction rather than assuming a disability.

If a student shows a pattern of errors consistent with L1 transfer, teach the contrast explicitly with examples; if errors are developmental and variable, provide more input and output rather than isolated drills.

Grouping rule: heterogeneous groups support language modeling; homogeneous proficiency groups support targeted skill instruction; rotate both across a unit rather than committing to one.

First-language milestones: cooing and babbling in the first year, first words near 12 months, two-word combinations near 18-24 months, and mastery of basic syntax by about age 4-5.

The critical period hypothesis holds that language acquisition is easiest before puberty; older learners may acquire L2 grammar and pronunciation less natively, but adolescents and adults learn academic vocabulary and metalinguistic skills faster.

Language universals and the poverty-of-stimulus argument support an innate capacity (Universal Grammar); behaviorist accounts explain imitation and reinforcement but not novel utterances children produce.

Bilingual development: simultaneous bilinguals acquire two languages from birth; sequential bilinguals add an L2 after an L1 is established; subtractive programs replace the L1, additive programs maintain it.

The L1 is a resource, not an obstacle: concepts and literacy skills learned in the L1 transfer to English, so strong L1 literacy predicts faster English reading development.

Code-switching is a rule-governed, normal bilingual behavior, not a sign of confusion or language loss.

Content and language objective pairing: every sheltered lesson states what students will learn in the subject and what language they will use to demonstrate it (e.g., explain cause and effect with because and as a result).

Comprehensible input techniques: slower speech with clear articulation, short sentences, repetition with paraphrase, realia, visuals, demonstrations, and written backup of oral directions.

Check-for-understanding rule: use techniques that require all students to respond (thumbs, whiteboards, choral response, cold call after think time) rather than asking 'Any questions?'.

Text modification: shorten sentences, replace idioms and low-frequency words, add headings and glossaries, and supplement dense text with diagrams; keep the core concept and grade-level rigor intact.

Assessment of content for ELs should separate language from content where possible: allow visual or graphic responses, use rubrics that name language expectations, and avoid grading grammar on a science assessment unless it is the target.

English consonant phonemes include stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, liquids, and glides; voiced and voiceless pairs (/p/-/b/, /t/-/d/, /k/-/g/, /f/-/v/, /s/-/z/) differ only in voicing.

Vowel system: English has about 12-15 vowel phonemes depending on dialect, including tense/lax pairs and diphthongs; spelling-to-sound irregularity (ough, ea) explains many EL reading errors.

Syllable structure and phonotactics: English allows clusters such as /str-/ and final clusters such as -sts; languages that disallow these clusters lead speakers to insert vowels or delete consonants in English.

Inflectional morphology order in English verbs: tense/agreement precedes aspect (-ed, then -ing), and irregular forms (go/went, child/children) must be learned as lexical items, not by rule.

Sentence types: simple (one clause), compound (coordinated clauses), complex (subordinate clause), and compound-complex; ELD standards progress students from simple to complex sentence production.

Pronoun and article systems are frequent EL error sources: English requires articles where many languages do not, and pronoun gender and case (he/him, she/her) follow agreement rules absent in some L1s.

Reliability and validity: a test is valid for a purpose (placement, progress, reclassification) only if it measures the intended construct; a single score should not drive high-stakes decisions.

Reclassification criteria typically combine English proficiency test scores, teacher evaluation, grades or content assessment, and parent consultation; no single measure should determine exit from EL services.

Performance assessments (oral presentations, writing portfolios, project rubrics) capture productive language better than selected-response items, which cannot assess speaking or extended writing.

Rubric design: analytic rubrics score dimensions separately (grammatical accuracy, vocabulary, discourse, pronunciation); holistic rubrics give one overall score; ELD writing rubrics should align to proficiency descriptors.

Progress monitoring: compare a student's current performance to the same student's earlier performance (growth) and to proficiency-level expectations (status); both are needed to judge program effectiveness.

Culture is learned, shared, and dynamic; it includes values, communication styles, and interaction norms, so cultural generalizations should guide questions, never predictions about an individual student.

Individualism and collectivism affect classroom expectations: cooperative work, public correction, and competition may be interpreted differently across cultural norms; explain the purpose of activities explicitly.

Home-language literacy and oral traditions are assets; invite families to share stories, songs, and knowledge, and provide bilingual materials so families can support learning.

Communication with families should be proactive, two-way, and in the home language; avoid using students as interpreters for sensitive or disciplinary matters.

Equity audits examine disaggregated data (placement, discipline, gifted identification, graduation) by language status to find patterns of unequal access and correct them.