Denmark Category C/E Heavy Trailer Theory Test cheat sheet

Speed limits in Denmark (general rule): built-up areas 50 km/h, rural roads 80 km/h, motorways 130 km/h; a lorry over 3.5 t with trailer is limited to 80 km/h on motorways and 70 km/h on rural roads unless a sign states otherwise.

A category C/E combination requires the BE or CE entitlement; CE covers a lorry over 3.5 t towing a trailer over 750 kg, and the driver must hold a valid driver qualification card (before 2016: code 95) for commercial carriage.

Trailers over 750 kg need their own registration and number plate; the towing vehicle's registration document must state the permitted trailer mass and the combination's permitted gross train weight.

Overtaking bans for heavy combinations are shown by the red-bordered circular sign with a red lorry symbol on the left and a black car on the right: lorries over 3.5 t may not overtake multi-track vehicles.

A round blue sign with a white lorry means a route compulsory for lorries; a round white sign with a red border and lorry symbol means no entry for goods vehicles over the stated mass.

At unmarked junctions in Denmark, the right-hand rule applies: give way to traffic from the right; a lorry combination needs a much longer gap to clear the junction, so treat the rule as a minimum, not a target.

Trailer lighting and signalling must match the towing vehicle: two red rear lamps, two red reflectors, direction indicators and a rear fog lamp; a trailer wider than the towing vehicle needs additional outline marker lamps.

A break-down triangle must be carried and placed at least 50 m behind the combination on a motorway (behind the crash barrier if possible) and at a suitable distance on other roads; a warning vest is mandatory when leaving the vehicle on a motorway.

Maximum authorised dimensions for a lorry and trailer combination in Denmark: width 2.55 m (2.60 m for refrigerated bodies), height 4.0 m, length 18.75 m for a rigid lorry plus drawbar trailer, and 16.50 m for a tractor unit plus semi-trailer.

Maximum authorised mass for a combination is 48 t gross train weight on 6 or more axles; the drive axle load must not exceed the manufacturer's rating and the trailer's permitted mass is stated on its plate.

Fifth-wheel coupling: the kingpin must sit fully in the jaws and the locking handle must be secured; after coupling, check the gap between the tractor's rear cab and the semi-trailer front wall is adequate for articulation and that the trailer legs are fully raised.

Drawbar coupling: the eye must sit fully down on the coupling pin and the safety catch must be closed; the breakaway cable or secondary coupling must be attached to a point on the towing vehicle, not to the ball or pin itself.

Air and electrical lines: connect the red (supply) line first and the yellow (brake) line second; on uncoupling, disconnect yellow first, then red, so the trailer brakes are not released while the lines are still connected.

The turning circle of an articulated combination is smaller than the driver's view suggests: the trailer cuts the corner, so swing wide before a turn and watch the trailer's rear wheels in the mirrors through the whole manoeuvre.

Off-tracking (rearward amplification) grows with speed and short wheelbase: a long combination tracks inside the tractor's path in a turn and swings out at the rear when changing lanes, so allow extra lateral space.

Load distribution rule: keep the centre of gravity low and as far forward as the axle loads allow; the drive axle needs enough load for traction, but the steer axle must stay within its rating and retain at least about 20 % of the combination's mass for steering grip.

Brake early and progressively: a laden combination needs roughly 2-3 times the stopping distance of a car, and the air-brake system has a build-up delay of about 0.3-0.5 s before full braking pressure reaches the trailer.

Engine braking and retarder are the primary speed control on long descents; use a gear that holds the speed without service brakes, and apply the service brake in short firm applications rather than riding it, to avoid brake fade.

Snaking (trailer swing) is corrected by releasing the accelerator and, if the combination has a trailer brake lever, applying it gently; never brake hard or steer sharply, which amplifies the swing.

A jack-knife begins when the drive axle locks or loses grip: keep the steering steady, release the brake to let the wheels roll again, and re-apply pressure gradually once the combination is straight.

Cornering: slow down before the bend, not in it; a high centre of gravity plus lateral force can roll the combination, and the roll-over threshold falls sharply as speed in the bend rises.

Following distance for a heavy combination should be at least 3 seconds in dry conditions and 6 seconds or more in rain or on gravel, because the air-brake response and the mass make close-following unrecoverable.

Reversing an articulated combination: steer the tractor's rear wheels toward the side you want the trailer to go; small, early corrections beat large late ones, and a banksman or rear camera check is required where visibility is blocked.

Crosswind and overtaking coaches or lorries create a pressure wave that pushes a high-sided trailer sideways; reduce speed and keep a firm, small steering input rather than a large correction.

The load must be secured against forward, rearward and lateral forces: EN 12195-1 assumes 0.8 g forward, 0.5 g rearward and 0.5 g sideways for road transport, and the securing system must resist those forces.

Lashing capacity (LC) is the maximum force a strap may transmit; the pre-tension force (STF) is what the tensioner applies. A typical ratchet strap has LC around 2,500 daN and STF around 250-500 daN, and only the STF counts toward friction-based securing.

Friction securing formula: the number of lashings n = (c - μ) × m × g / (2 × μ × STF × sin α), where c is the acceleration factor, μ the friction coefficient, m the load mass, g 9.81 m/s² and α the lashing angle; with μ = 0.2 on steel, many more lashings are needed than on anti-slip matting (μ ≈ 0.6).

Headboards, side gates and twist locks are part of the securing system only up to their rated strength; a container must be locked with all four twist locks, and a curtain-side alone does not secure a load.

Weight distribution: the sum of axle loads equals the gross mass; placing the load's centre of gravity over the drive axle improves traction but must not exceed the drive axle rating or unload the steer axle below its minimum.

Axle load calculation for a semi-trailer: load on the tractor's drive axle ≈ load mass × (distance from load CG to trailer axles) / wheelbase of the trailer; move the load forward to increase drive axle load, rearward to reduce it.

Never exceed the plated gross vehicle mass, gross train weight, axle loads or the tyre load rating; overloading by 10 % increases braking distance and is an offence with a fine proportional to the excess.

Check the load after the first 10-20 km and at every stop: straps slacken as the load settles, and a loose strap or shifted pallet is a defect that must be corrected before continuing.

A lorry air-brake system runs at about 8-8.5 bar in the reservoirs; the low-pressure warning must sound before pressure falls below about 4.5-5 bar, and the spring brakes apply automatically when pressure is lost.

The tractor protection valve and the trailer's relay emergency valve close the lines if a coupling separates; the trailer's spring brakes then apply, which is why the red supply line must be connected for the trailer to release its brakes.

Daily brake test: with the engine running and system charged, check the low-pressure warning, the compressor build-up time (typically from 0 to 8 bar in under 3 minutes at idle), and that no audible leak is present with the pedal released.

Leak test: with the system charged and the engine off, apply and hold the footbrake; a pressure drop of more than about 0.2-0.3 bar per minute indicates a leak that must be repaired before driving.

The trailer brake test (roll test): pull gently forward at walking pace and apply the trailer brake lever; the combination must slow and the trailer brakes must hold, confirming the trailer's brakes are working independently of the tractor.

ABS warning lamp must go out after the self-test when the vehicle starts moving; a lamp that stays on means ABS is disabled and the combination may lock its wheels under heavy braking.

Coupling check sequence: check the fifth wheel jaws are closed around the kingpin, the locking handle is secured, the air lines are connected and not chafed, the electrical cable is plugged in, the trailer legs are up and the number plate and lights match.

The endurance brake (retarder) and the service brake must be tested separately: the retarder must not be the only means of slowing the combination, and its operation must be checked with the trailer connected.

Daily driving limit: 9 hours, extendable to 10 hours twice in a week; weekly driving limit 56 hours; two-week limit 90 hours.

Breaks: after 4.5 hours of driving, take a 45-minute break, which may be split into 15 minutes followed by 30 minutes; the 15-minute part must come first.

Daily rest: 11 hours, reducible to 9 hours no more than three times between weekly rests; a split daily rest is 3 hours plus 9 hours. Weekly rest: 45 hours, reducible to 24 hours, with compensation taken in one block before the end of the third week.

The tachograph records driving, other work, availability and rest; the driver must enter the country of start and end, and manual entries must be made for any period not recorded automatically.

A driver must carry: driving licence, driver qualification card, tachograph records for the current day and the previous 28 days, and the transport document (CMR consignment note or national waybill) for the load.

The CMR note shows consignor, consignee, place and date of taking over, goods description, gross mass and any special instructions; the driver checks the gross mass against the vehicle's permitted train weight before departure.

A driver must be able to show the previous 28 days of records at a roadside check; printouts must be signed and any manual correction explained in writing.

The weekly rest may not be taken in the vehicle cab if it is a regular weekly rest; a reduced weekly rest may be taken in a suitable parked vehicle with a bunk, and the tachograph must record rest.

Scan 12-15 seconds ahead and use the mirrors every 5-8 seconds; a laden combination needs the whole mirror view because the blind spot beside the trailer hides a car at the driver's elbow.

At a junction, look for the gap the whole combination needs, not the gap for the cab; a car entering the gap beside the trailer is a common collision, so check the trailer's flank before moving off.

Pedestrians and cyclists near a turning lorry: the trailer's rear wheels cut inside the cab's path, so a cyclist on the inside of a left turn is in the crush zone even when the cab has passed.

In rain, spray and low sun, increase the following gap and switch on dipped headlights; a combination's spray plume can hide the road for following drivers, so signal earlier than in a car.

At a railway crossing, stop only if the exit is clear: a stalled combination on the tracks is a life-threatening situation, and the driver must be able to clear the crossing in one movement.

When a car overtakes and cuts in, ease off rather than brake hard: a laden combination cannot shed speed quickly and the gap will close anyway.

In roadworks and narrow lanes, keep to the lane centre and check the trailer's width in the mirrors; a 2.55 m trailer leaves little margin and a cone strike is a reportable incident.

If the load shifts or a tyre blows, hold the wheel firmly, ease off the accelerator and steer straight before braking gently; a sudden brake on a deflating tyre can pull the combination off the road.

Daily walk-around check: tyres (tread depth at least 1.6 mm on lorries and trailers, no cuts or bulges), lights, reflectors, number plates, mirrors, wipers, washer fluid, oil and coolant levels, and the load securing points.

Tyre pressures must be checked cold and to the manufacturer's rating for the axle load; a soft tyre overheats and can fail, and twin tyres must be matched in size and wear to avoid overload on one tyre.

Brake test and air leak check before the first journey, plus a check that the ABS lamp extinguishes; any defect that affects braking, steering or lights means the vehicle must not be driven.

The periodic technical inspection (syn) is required at intervals set by vehicle age and use; the driver must carry the inspection report and the vehicle must display a valid inspection sticker where required.

Defect reporting: record any defect found in the company's defect book, report it to the operator, and do not take the vehicle on the road if the defect is safety-related; a driver who drives a defective vehicle is personally liable.

Common trailer defects: cracked or missing mudguards, chafed air lines, a damaged coupling jaw, worn kingpin, a faulty spring brake chamber, and inoperative side marker lamps.

Wheel nut indicators (check pointers) must all point the same way; a displaced indicator signals a loose nut, and the wheel must be checked before the vehicle moves.

The tachograph and speed limiter are part of the vehicle's safety equipment: a defective speed limiter (set at 90 km/h for lorries over 3.5 t) or tachograph must be repaired and the defect recorded.

At an incident: secure the scene first (warning triangle, hazard lights, warning vest), call 112, give the location and number of casualties, and do not move an injured person unless there is fire or a further collision risk.

Severe bleeding: apply direct pressure with a clean dressing and, if possible, elevate the limb; do not remove an object embedded in a wound, and record the time a tourniquet is applied.

An unconscious but breathing casualty goes in the recovery position; check breathing for up to 10 seconds and start chest compressions (100-120 per minute, 5-6 cm deep) if breathing is absent.

After a collision, exchange details (name, address, registration, insurer), photograph the scene, and complete the accident report; a driver involved in a collision with personal injury must stay at the scene.

Environmental driving: keep the engine off when stationary for more than about 30 seconds, use the retarder and engine braking, and maintain steady speed; a laden combination can cut fuel use by 10-15 % with anticipatory driving.

Eco-driving on a descent: use the retarder and a gear that holds the speed, avoid riding the service brake, and let the combination's momentum carry it uphill where safe; unnecessary braking wastes the energy just used.

Idling a cold engine wastes fuel and increases wear; start, let pressure build, and drive gently for the first few kilometres rather than idling to warm up.

Plan the route to avoid low bridges, weight-restricted roads and narrow village streets; a wrong turn in a combination costs fuel and time and may force an illegal U-turn.

Uncoupling sequence: park on level ground, apply the parking brake, lower the trailer legs to the ground, disconnect the electrical cable, then the yellow brake line, then the red supply line, and finally release the fifth-wheel handle.

The trailer's parking brake must be applied before the red line is disconnected; once the red line is off, the trailer's spring brakes apply automatically, which is the intended safe state.

Articulation angle: a semi-trailer can usually articulate about 90 degrees before the cab and trailer touch; a tight turn beyond that damages the cab, the trailer corner and the air lines.

Drawbar trailer tracking: the trailer follows inside the towing vehicle's path, so the swept path is wider on the inside of the turn; check the trailer's wheels in the mirror before completing the turn.

Height: the combination's height is the highest point, usually the trailer roof or an air deflector; a bridge marked lower than the combination's height must not be attempted, and a 4.0 m limit is the legal maximum.

The rear overhang of a semi-trailer swings outward in a turn; a pedestrian or bollard behind the trailer's rear corner is at risk even though the cab has cleared it.

Fifth-wheel height and trailer leg setting must match: too high a fifth wheel lifts the trailer's front and unloads the drive axle; too low a setting can cause the trailer to strike the tractor's chassis.

Before coupling, check the kingpin and fifth-wheel jaws for wear and grease; a dry or worn coupling produces a clunk, play in the coupling and accelerated wear of the kingpin.

The parking brake on a heavy combination is usually a spring brake: it applies when air pressure is released, so a loss of pressure parks the vehicle rather than letting it roll.

The trailer's spring brake chambers must be checked for a free stroke within the manufacturer's limit; an over-stroked chamber means the brake is out of adjustment and the trailer may not hold.

The load-sensing valve adjusts brake pressure to the load; a faulty valve can cause trailer wheel lock-up when empty, so the empty and laden brake performance should both be checked.

The emergency (breakaway) valve applies the trailer brakes if the lines part; after reconnecting, the system must be charged and the valve reset before the trailer will release.

The hand valve (trailer brake lever) applies the trailer brakes only; it is used for the roll test and for correcting a snake, not as a parking brake.

Brake chambers and slack adjusters must be checked for air leaks with soapy water; a leak at the chamber diaphragm or a slack adjuster that will not hold adjustment is a defect that grounds the vehicle.

When coupling, the air lines must be connected before the trailer's parking brake is released; the red line charges the trailer reservoir, and the yellow line carries the control pressure.

A full brake test after coupling includes: build-up time, leak test, trailer roll test and a check that the ABS/EBS lamp goes out once the combination moves.

The 4.5-hour driving period may be interrupted by a break of at least 45 minutes or by a split break of 15 minutes then 30 minutes; a break of 30 minutes then 15 minutes does not count.

A driver may take a daily rest in two parts: an uninterrupted 3 hours plus an uninterrupted 9 hours, totalling 12 hours, within the 24-hour period from the end of the previous daily or weekly rest.

The tachograph must be switched to 'other work' for loading, unloading, vehicle checks and paperwork; only time at the disposal of the operator without duties counts as 'availability'.

A driver must carry and produce on request: the current day's and previous 28 days' tachograph records, the driver qualification card, the driving licence and the transport document.

The CMR note is the contract of carriage; the driver must check the number of packages, the gross mass and any special handling instructions, and note any damage or shortfall on the note before signing.

Weekly driving time may not exceed 56 hours and the two-week total may not exceed 90 hours; the weekly rest must be taken after no more than six consecutive 24-hour periods.

A reduced weekly rest of at least 24 hours must be compensated by an equivalent period of rest taken en bloc before the end of the third week following the week concerned.

The tachograph card is personal: using another driver's card, or driving without a card inserted, is an offence, and manual entries must be made for any period the card could not record.

A cyclist or pedestrian at the near side of a lorry in a left turn is in the blind spot and the trailer's rear wheels will pass over that space; the driver must check the near-side mirror and the blind-spot mirror before turning.

In slow traffic, leave a gap in front that allows a view of the road and room to manoeuvre; a combination that closes up cannot see the road surface or a pedestrian stepping out.

On a motorway, a heavy combination should keep to the right-hand lane except when overtaking; a long overtake at 80 km/h against a 90 km/h limit takes a long time and blocks faster traffic.

When entering a motorway, use the slip road to match speed; a laden combination accelerates slowly, so build speed early and merge into a gap rather than forcing one.

At a pedestrian crossing, a combination needs more distance to stop; approach at a speed that allows a stop within the visible clear distance, especially in the rain.

A car in the blind spot beside the trailer is invisible from the cab; a mirror check plus a shoulder check before changing lanes is the only reliable detection, and a blind-spot camera or sensor is an aid, not a substitute.

In fog, use dipped headlights and fog lamps only when visibility is below about 50 m; a combination's fog lamps at the rear can dazzle following drivers when visibility improves.

When a tyre bursts at speed, hold the wheel, ease off and let the combination slow; braking hard on the burst side pulls the vehicle toward that side and can cause a roll-over.

The daily check must include the coupling: fifth-wheel jaws closed, locking handle secured, air lines and cable connected and clear of the catwalk, trailer legs raised, and the trailer's parking brake released only after the lines are charged.

Tyre tread: at least 1.6 mm across the central three-quarters of the tread for lorries and trailers; a tyre with a cut to the cord or a bulge is a defect regardless of tread depth.

Lighting check: all side marker lamps, rear lamps, brake lamps, indicators, reversing lamps and the rear fog lamp must work; a trailer wider than the towing vehicle needs outline marker lamps at the front and rear.

The load securing equipment must be inspected: straps for cuts and fraying, ratchets for function, chains for cracks, and twist locks for free movement and full engagement.

The air system check: with the engine off and the system charged, listen for leaks at the chambers, valves and lines; a pressure drop with the pedal released points to a leak in the supply circuit.

The periodic inspection sticker and the vehicle's registration document must be in order; the driver should check the plated masses against the load before departure.

A defect that affects safety (brakes, steering, tyres, lights, coupling) means the vehicle must not be driven until repaired; the driver records the defect and informs the operator.

Wheel and hub checks: look for oil or grease leaking from the hub, a hot hub after a run, and loose or missing wheel nuts; a wheel that has been removed must have its nuts re-torqued after about 50 km.

Scene safety first: switch on hazard lights, put on the warning vest, place the warning triangle, and only then approach the casualty; a second collision is the most common cause of further injury.

Call 112 and state: the location (road number, direction, nearest exit), the number of vehicles and casualties, any fire or hazardous load, and your callback number; do not hang up until asked.

CPR for an adult: 30 chest compressions at 100-120 per minute, 5-6 cm deep, then 2 rescue breaths; continue until the ambulance arrives or the casualty breathes normally.

Recovery position for an unconscious but breathing casualty: lie on the side, head tilted back, mouth pointing down, and monitor breathing until help arrives.

After an incident, the driver must not leave the scene of a collision with personal injury; exchange details, record the other party's insurer, and report to the police if required.

Eco-driving: anticipate traffic, use the retarder and engine braking, keep tyre pressures correct, and avoid idling; a well-driven laden combination can use 10-15 % less fuel than an aggressive one.

Route planning avoids low bridges, weight limits and congestion; a wrong turn costs fuel, time and may force an illegal manoeuvre with a long combination.

Cold-start procedure: start the engine, let the air pressure build, and drive gently for the first few kilometres; idling to warm the engine wastes fuel and increases engine wear.

A lorry over 3.5 t with trailer is limited to 80 km/h on motorways and 70 km/h on rural roads in Denmark unless a lower limit is signed; the general 130 km/h motorway limit does not apply to the combination.

The driver must hold a CE entitlement and a valid driver qualification card for commercial carriage; the card shows code 95 and must be renewed every 5 years.

Trailer registration: a trailer over 750 kg must be registered and display its own number plate; the combination's permitted gross train weight is stated on the towing vehicle's registration document.

The red-bordered circular sign with a lorry and car symbol bans lorries over 3.5 t from overtaking multi-track vehicles; the ban applies to the whole combination.

A blue circular sign with a white lorry marks a route compulsory for goods vehicles; a white circular sign with a red border and a lorry marks no entry for goods vehicles over the stated mass.

At unmarked junctions the right-hand rule applies; a long combination needs a gap large enough for the whole combination to clear, not just the cab.

A warning triangle must be placed at least 50 m behind the combination on a motorway; on other roads, place it at a distance that gives approaching traffic time to stop.

A warning vest must be worn when leaving the vehicle on a motorway or in the dark; the vest must be within reach from the driver's seat, not in the trailer.

Stopping distance for a laden combination is roughly 2-3 times that of a car; the air-brake system adds a build-up delay of about 0.3-0.5 s before full pressure reaches the trailer.

On a long descent, select a gear that holds the speed and use the retarder or engine brake; apply the service brake in short firm applications, not continuously, to avoid brake fade.

Snaking is corrected by releasing the accelerator and applying the trailer brake lever gently; hard braking or sharp steering amplifies the swing.

A jack-knife starts when the drive axle locks or loses grip: keep the steering steady, release the brake to let the wheels roll, and re-apply pressure gradually once the combination is straight.

Slow down before a bend, not in it; a high centre of gravity plus lateral force can roll the combination, and the roll-over threshold falls as speed in the bend rises.

Following distance should be at least 3 seconds in dry conditions and 6 seconds or more in rain or on gravel, because the combination's mass and air-brake response make close following unrecoverable.

Reversing an articulated combination: steer the tractor's rear wheels toward the side you want the trailer to go, and make small, early corrections; use a banksman or camera where visibility is blocked.

Crosswind and the pressure wave from an overtaking coach push a high-sided trailer sideways; reduce speed and make a small, firm steering input rather than a large correction.

Load securing must resist 0.8 g forward, 0.5 g rearward and 0.5 g sideways (EN 12195-1); the securing system, not the curtain, must resist those forces.

Lashing capacity (LC) is the maximum force a strap may transmit; the pre-tension force (STF) is what the tensioner applies, and only STF counts toward friction-based securing.

Friction securing formula: n = (c - μ) × m × g / (2 × μ × STF × sin α), with c the acceleration factor, μ the friction coefficient, m the load mass, g 9.81 m/s² and α the lashing angle.

With μ = 0.2 on steel, many more lashings are needed than on anti-slip matting (μ ≈ 0.6); anti-slip matting is the cheapest way to reduce the number of lashings.

Weight distribution: the sum of axle loads equals the gross mass; the load's centre of gravity must not exceed the drive axle rating or unload the steer axle below its minimum.

Semi-trailer axle load: drive axle load ≈ load mass × (distance from load CG to trailer axles) / trailer wheelbase; move the load forward to increase drive axle load, rearward to reduce it.

Never exceed the plated gross vehicle mass, gross train weight, axle loads or tyre load rating; overloading increases braking distance and is an offence with a fine proportional to the excess.

Check the load after the first 10-20 km and at every stop: straps slacken as the load settles, and a loose strap or shifted pallet must be corrected before continuing.

A lorry air-brake system runs at about 8-8.5 bar; the low-pressure warning must sound before pressure falls below about 4.5-5 bar, and the spring brakes apply automatically when pressure is lost.

The tractor protection valve and the trailer's relay emergency valve close the lines if a coupling separates; the trailer's spring brakes then apply, which is why the red supply line must be connected for the trailer to release.

Daily brake test: with the engine running and the system charged, check the low-pressure warning, the compressor build-up time (typically 0 to 8 bar in under 3 minutes at idle), and that no audible leak is present with the pedal released.

Leak test: with the system charged and the engine off, apply and hold the footbrake; a pressure drop of more than about 0.2-0.3 bar per minute indicates a leak that must be repaired before driving.

Trailer roll test: pull gently forward at walking pace and apply the trailer brake lever; the combination must slow and the trailer brakes must hold, confirming the trailer's brakes work independently of the tractor.

The ABS warning lamp must go out after the self-test when the vehicle starts moving; a lamp that stays on means ABS is disabled and the combination may lock its wheels under heavy braking.

Coupling check sequence: fifth-wheel jaws closed around the kingpin, locking handle secured, air lines connected and not chafed, electrical cable plugged in, trailer legs up, number plate and lights matching.

The retarder and the service brake must be tested separately; the retarder must not be the only means of slowing the combination, and its operation must be checked with the trailer connected.

Daily driving limit: 9 hours, extendable to 10 hours twice in a week; weekly limit 56 hours; two-week limit 90 hours.

Breaks: after 4.5 hours of driving, take a 45-minute break, which may be split into 15 minutes followed by 30 minutes; the 15-minute part must come first.

Daily rest: 11 hours, reducible to 9 hours no more than three times between weekly rests; a split daily rest is 3 hours plus 9 hours. Weekly rest: 45 hours, reducible to 24 hours, with compensation taken in one block before the end of the third week.

The tachograph records driving, other work, availability and rest; the driver must enter the country of start and end, and manual entries must be made for any period not recorded automatically.

A driver must carry: driving licence, driver qualification card, tachograph records for the current day and the previous 28 days, and the transport document (CMR consignment note or national waybill).

The CMR note shows consignor, consignee, place and date of taking over, goods description, gross mass and any special instructions; the driver checks the gross mass against the permitted train weight before departure.

A driver must be able to show the previous 28 days of records at a roadside check; printouts must be signed and any manual correction explained in writing.

A regular weekly rest may not be taken in the vehicle cab; a reduced weekly rest may be taken in a suitable parked vehicle with a bunk, and the tachograph must record rest.

Scan 12-15 seconds ahead and use the mirrors every 5-8 seconds; a laden combination needs the whole mirror view because the blind spot beside the trailer hides a car at the driver's elbow.

At a junction, look for the gap the whole combination needs, not the gap for the cab; a car entering the gap beside the trailer is a common collision, so check the trailer's flank before moving off.

Pedestrians and cyclists near a turning lorry: the trailer's rear wheels cut inside the cab's path, so a cyclist on the inside of a left turn is in the crush zone even when the cab has passed.

In rain, spray and low sun, increase the following gap and switch on dipped headlights; a combination's spray plume can hide the road for following drivers, so signal earlier than in a car.

At a railway crossing, stop only if the exit is clear; a stalled combination on the tracks is life-threatening, and the driver must be able to clear the crossing in one movement.

When a car overtakes and cuts in, ease off rather than brake hard; a laden combination cannot shed speed quickly and the gap will close anyway.

In roadworks and narrow lanes, keep to the lane centre and check the trailer's width in the mirrors; a 2.55 m trailer leaves little margin and a cone strike is a reportable incident.

If the load shifts or a tyre blows, hold the wheel firmly, ease off the accelerator and steer straight before braking gently; a sudden brake on a deflating tyre can pull the combination off the road.

Daily walk-around check: tyres (tread depth at least 1.6 mm on lorries and trailers, no cuts or bulges), lights, reflectors, number plates, mirrors, wipers, washer fluid, oil and coolant levels, and the load securing points.

Tyre pressures must be checked cold and to the manufacturer's rating for the axle load; a soft tyre overheats and can fail, and twin tyres must be matched in size and wear to avoid overload on one tyre.

Brake test and air leak check before the first journey, plus a check that the ABS lamp extinguishes; any defect that affects braking, steering or lights means the vehicle must not be driven.

The periodic technical inspection (syn) is required at intervals set by vehicle age and use; the driver must carry the inspection report and the vehicle must display a valid inspection sticker where required.

Defect reporting: record any defect in the company's defect book, report it to the operator, and do not take the vehicle on the road if the defect is safety-related; a driver who drives a defective vehicle is personally liable.

Common trailer defects: cracked or missing mudguards, chafed air lines, a damaged coupling jaw, a worn kingpin, a faulty spring brake chamber, and inoperative side marker lamps.

Wheel nut indicators (check pointers) must all point the same way; a displaced indicator signals a loose nut, and the wheel must be checked before the vehicle moves.

The tachograph and speed limiter are part of the vehicle's safety equipment: a defective speed limiter (set at 90 km/h for lorries over 3.5 t) or tachograph must be repaired and the defect recorded.

At an incident: secure the scene first (warning triangle, hazard lights, warning vest), call 112, give the location and number of casualties, and do not move an injured person unless there is fire or a further collision risk.

Severe bleeding: apply direct pressure with a clean dressing and, if possible, elevate the limb; do not remove an object embedded in a wound, and record the time a tourniquet is applied.

An unconscious but breathing casualty goes in the recovery position; check breathing for up to 10 seconds and start chest compressions (100-120 per minute, 5-6 cm deep) if breathing is absent.

After a collision, exchange details (name, address, registration, insurer), photograph the scene, and complete the accident report; a driver involved in a collision with personal injury must stay at the scene.

Environmental driving: keep the engine off when stationary for more than about 30 seconds, use the retarder and engine braking, and maintain steady speed; a laden combination can cut fuel use by 10-15 % with anticipatory driving.

Eco-driving on a descent: use the retarder and a gear that holds the speed, avoid riding the service brake, and let the combination's momentum carry it uphill where safe; unnecessary braking wastes the energy just used.

Idling a cold engine wastes fuel and increases wear; start, let pressure build, and drive gently for the first few kilometres rather than idling to warm up.

Plan the route to avoid low bridges, weight-restricted roads and narrow village streets; a wrong turn in a combination costs fuel and time and may force an illegal U-turn.

Maximum authorised dimensions in Denmark: width 2.55 m (2.60 m for refrigerated bodies), height 4.0 m, length 18.75 m for a rigid lorry plus drawbar trailer, and 16.50 m for a tractor unit plus semi-trailer.

Maximum authorised mass for a combination is 48 t gross train weight on 6 or more axles; the drive axle load must not exceed the manufacturer's rating and the trailer's permitted mass is stated on its plate.

Fifth-wheel coupling: the kingpin must sit fully in the jaws and the locking handle must be secured; after coupling, check the gap between the tractor's rear cab and the semi-trailer front wall is adequate for articulation and that the trailer legs are fully raised.

Drawbar coupling: the eye must sit fully down on the coupling pin and the safety catch must be closed; the breakaway cable or secondary coupling must be attached to a point on the towing vehicle, not to the ball or pin itself.

Air and electrical lines: connect the red (supply) line first and the yellow (brake) line second; on uncoupling, disconnect yellow first, then red, so the trailer brakes are not released while the lines are still connected.

The turning circle of an articulated combination is smaller than the driver's view suggests: the trailer cuts the corner, so swing wide before a turn and watch the trailer's rear wheels in the mirrors through the whole manoeuvre.

Off-tracking (rearward amplification) grows with speed and short wheelbase: a long combination tracks inside the tractor's path in a turn and swings out at the rear when changing lanes, so allow extra lateral space.

Load distribution rule: keep the centre of gravity low and as far forward as the axle loads allow; the drive axle needs enough load for traction, but the steer axle must stay within its rating and retain at least about 20 % of the combination's mass for steering grip.

Brake early and progressively: a laden combination needs roughly 2-3 times the stopping distance of a car, and the air-brake system has a build-up delay of about 0.3-0.5 s before full braking pressure reaches the trailer.

Engine braking and retarder are the primary speed control on long descents; use a gear that holds the speed without service brakes, and apply the service brake in short firm applications rather than riding it, to avoid brake fade.

Snaking (trailer swing) is corrected by releasing the accelerator and, if the combination has a trailer brake lever, applying it gently; never brake hard or steer sharply, which amplifies the swing.

A jack-knife begins when the drive axle locks or loses grip: keep the steering steady, release the brake to let the wheels roll again, and re-apply pressure gradually once the combination is straight.

Cornering: slow down before the bend, not in it; a high centre of gravity plus lateral force can roll the combination, and the roll-over threshold falls sharply as speed in the bend rises.

Following distance for a heavy combination should be at least 3 seconds in dry conditions and 6 seconds or more in rain or on gravel, because the air-brake response and the mass make close-following unrecoverable.

Reversing an articulated combination: steer the tractor's rear wheels toward the side you want the trailer to go; small, early corrections beat large late ones, and a banksman or rear camera check is required where visibility is blocked.

Crosswind and overtaking coaches or lorries create a pressure wave that pushes a high-sided trailer sideways; reduce speed and keep a firm, small steering input rather than a large correction.

The load must be secured against forward, rearward and lateral forces: EN 12195-1 assumes 0.8 g forward, 0.5 g rearward and 0.5 g sideways for road transport, and the securing system must resist those forces.

Lashing capacity (LC) is the maximum force a strap may transmit; the pre-tension force (STF) is what the tensioner applies. A typical ratchet strap has LC around 2,500 daN and STF around 250-500 daN, and only the STF counts toward friction-based securing.

Friction securing formula: the number of lashings n = (c - μ) × m × g / (2 × μ × STF × sin α), where c is the acceleration factor, μ the friction coefficient, m the load mass, g 9.81 m/s² and α the lashing angle; with μ = 0.2 on steel, many more lashings are needed than on anti-slip matting (μ ≈ 0.6).

Headboards, side gates and twist locks are part of the securing system only up to their rated strength; a container must be locked with all four twist locks, and a curtain-side alone does not secure a load.

Weight distribution: the sum of axle loads equals the gross mass; placing the load's centre of gravity over the drive axle improves traction but must not exceed the drive axle rating or unload the steer axle below its minimum.

Axle load calculation for a semi-trailer: load on the tractor's drive axle ≈ load mass × (distance from load CG to trailer axles) / wheelbase of the trailer; move the load forward to increase drive axle load, rearward to reduce it.

Never exceed the plated gross vehicle mass, gross train weight, axle loads or the tyre load rating; overloading by 10 % increases braking distance and is an offence with a fine proportional to the excess.

Check the load after the first 10-20 km and at every stop: straps slacken as the load settles, and a loose strap or shifted pallet is a defect that must be corrected before continuing.

A lorry air-brake system runs at about 8-8.5 bar in the reservoirs; the low-pressure warning must sound before pressure falls below about 4.5-5 bar, and the spring brakes apply automatically when pressure is lost.

The tractor protection valve and the trailer's relay emergency valve close the lines if a coupling separates; the trailer's spring brakes then apply, which is why the red supply line must be connected for the trailer to release its brakes.

Daily brake test: with the engine running and system charged, check the low-pressure warning, the compressor build-up time (typically from 0 to 8 bar in under 3 minutes at idle), and that no audible leak is present with the pedal released.

Leak test: with the system charged and the engine off, apply and hold the footbrake; a pressure drop of more than about 0.2-0.3 bar per minute indicates a leak that must be repaired before driving.

The trailer brake test (roll test): pull gently forward at walking pace and apply the trailer brake lever; the combination must slow and the trailer brakes must hold, confirming the trailer's brakes are working independently of the tractor.

ABS warning lamp must go out after the self-test when the vehicle starts moving; a lamp that stays on means ABS is disabled and the combination may lock its wheels under heavy braking.

Coupling check sequence: check the fifth wheel jaws are closed around the kingpin, the locking handle is secured, the air lines are connected and not chafed, the electrical cable is plugged in, the trailer legs are up and the number plate and lights match.

The endurance brake (retarder) and the service brake must be tested separately: the retarder must not be the only means of slowing the combination, and its operation must be checked with the trailer connected.

Daily driving limit: 9 hours, extendable to 10 hours twice in a week; weekly driving limit 56 hours; two-week limit 90 hours.

Breaks: after 4.5 hours of driving, take a 45-minute break, which may be split into 15 minutes followed by 30 minutes; the 15-minute part must come first.

Daily rest: 11 hours, reducible to 9 hours no more than three times between weekly rests; a split daily rest is 3 hours plus 9 hours. Weekly rest: 45 hours, reducible to 24 hours, with compensation taken in one block before the end of the third week.

The tachograph records driving, other work, availability and rest; the driver must enter the country of start and end, and manual entries must be made for any period not recorded automatically.

A driver must carry: driving licence, driver qualification card, tachograph records for the current day and the previous 28 days, and the transport document (CMR consignment note or national waybill) for the load.

The CMR note shows consignor, consignee, place and date of taking over, goods description, gross mass and any special instructions; the driver checks the gross mass against the vehicle's permitted train weight before departure.

A driver must be able to show the previous 28 days of records at a roadside check; printouts must be signed and any manual correction explained in writing.

The weekly rest may not be taken in the vehicle cab if it is a regular weekly rest; a reduced weekly rest may be taken in a suitable parked vehicle with a bunk, and the tachograph must record rest.

Scan 12-15 seconds ahead and use the mirrors every 5-8 seconds; a laden combination needs the whole mirror view because the blind spot beside the trailer hides a car at the driver's elbow.

At a junction, look for the gap the whole combination needs, not the gap for the cab; a car entering the gap beside the trailer is a common collision, so check the trailer's flank before moving off.

Pedestrians and cyclists near a turning lorry: the trailer's rear wheels cut inside the cab's path, so a cyclist on the inside of a left turn is in the crush zone even when the cab has passed.

In rain, spray and low sun, increase the following gap and switch on dipped headlights; a combination's spray plume can hide the road for following drivers, so signal earlier than in a car.

At a railway crossing, stop only if the exit is clear: a stalled combination on the tracks is a life-threatening situation, and the driver must be able to clear the crossing in one movement.

When a car overtakes and cuts in, ease off rather than brake hard: a laden combination cannot shed speed quickly and the gap will close anyway.

In roadworks and narrow lanes, keep to the lane centre and check the trailer's width in the mirrors; a 2.55 m trailer leaves little margin and a cone strike is a reportable incident.

If the load shifts or a tyre blows, hold the wheel firmly, ease off the accelerator and steer straight before braking gently; a sudden brake on a deflating tyre can pull the combination off the road.

Daily walk-around check: tyres (tread depth at least 1.6 mm on lorries and trailers, no cuts or bulges), lights, reflectors, number plates, mirrors, wipers, washer fluid, oil and coolant levels, and the load securing points.

Tyre pressures must be checked cold and to the manufacturer's rating for the axle load; a soft tyre overheats and can fail, and twin tyres must be matched in size and wear to avoid overload on one tyre.

Brake test and air leak check before the first journey, plus a check that the ABS lamp extinguishes; any defect that affects braking, steering or lights means the vehicle must not be driven.

The periodic technical inspection (syn) is required at intervals set by vehicle age and use; the driver must carry the inspection report and the vehicle must display a valid inspection sticker where required.

Defect reporting: record any defect found in the company's defect book, report it to the operator, and do not take the vehicle on the road if the defect is safety-related; a driver who drives a defective vehicle is personally liable.

Common trailer defects: cracked or missing mudguards, chafed air lines, a damaged coupling jaw, worn kingpin, a faulty spring brake chamber, and inoperative side marker lamps.

Wheel nut indicators (check pointers) must all point the same way; a displaced indicator signals a loose nut, and the wheel must be checked before the vehicle moves.

The tachograph and speed limiter are part of the vehicle's safety equipment: a defective speed limiter (set at 90 km/h for lorries over 3.5 t) or tachograph must be repaired and the defect recorded.

At an incident: secure the scene first (warning triangle, hazard lights, warning vest), call 112, give the location and number of casualties, and do not move an injured person unless there is fire or a further collision risk.

Severe bleeding: apply direct pressure with a clean dressing and, if possible, elevate the limb; do not remove an object embedded in a wound, and record the time a tourniquet is applied.

An unconscious but breathing casualty goes in the recovery position; check breathing for up to 10 seconds and start chest compressions (100-120 per minute, 5-6 cm deep) if breathing is absent.

After a collision, exchange details (name, address, registration, insurer), photograph the scene, and complete the accident report; a driver involved in a collision with personal injury must stay at the scene.

Environmental driving: keep the engine off when stationary for more than about 30 seconds, use the retarder and engine braking, and maintain steady speed; a laden combination can cut fuel use by 10-15 % with anticipatory driving.

Eco-driving on a descent: use the retarder and a gear that holds the speed, avoid riding the service brake, and let the combination's momentum carry it uphill where safe; unnecessary braking wastes the energy just used.

Idling a cold engine wastes fuel and increases wear; start, let pressure build, and drive gently for the first few kilometres rather than idling to warm up.

Plan the route to avoid low bridges, weight-restricted roads and narrow village streets; a wrong turn in a combination costs fuel and time and may force an illegal U-turn.

Uncoupling sequence: park on level ground, apply the parking brake, lower the trailer legs to the ground, disconnect the electrical cable, then the yellow brake line, then the red supply line, and finally release the fifth-wheel handle.

The trailer's parking brake must be applied before the red line is disconnected; once the red line is off, the trailer's spring brakes apply automatically, which is the intended safe state.

Articulation angle: a semi-trailer can usually articulate about 90 degrees before the cab and trailer touch; a tight turn beyond that damages the cab, the trailer corner and the air lines.

Drawbar trailer tracking: the trailer follows inside the towing vehicle's path, so the swept path is wider on the inside of the turn; check the trailer's wheels in the mirror before completing the turn.

Height: the combination's height is the highest point, usually the trailer roof or an air deflector; a bridge marked lower than the combination's height must not be attempted, and a 4.0 m limit is the legal maximum.

The rear overhang of a semi-trailer swings outward in a turn; a pedestrian or bollard behind the trailer's rear corner is at risk even though the cab has cleared it.

Fifth-wheel height and trailer leg setting must match: too high a fifth wheel lifts the trailer's front and unloads the drive axle; too low a setting can cause the trailer to strike the tractor's chassis.

Before coupling, check the kingpin and fifth-wheel jaws for wear and grease; a dry or worn coupling produces a clunk, play in the coupling and accelerated wear of the kingpin.