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EPSO AST/SC study materials
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EPSO AST/SC practice questions

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Question 1Verbal reasoning

In the context of EPSO verbal reasoning tests, what does it mean to identify the 'main idea' of a passage?

  1. To state the central point the author develops across the whole text. Correct answer.
  2. To copy the first sentence of the passage verbatim.
  3. To locate the single sentence that contains the most proper nouns.
  4. To list every example the author gives in support of a claim.

Explanation

The main idea is the central claim or point that the whole passage is built to support; supporting details and examples serve it rather than define it. A single sentence may express it, but the concept concerns the overall argument, not the sentence with the most names or the opening line.

Question 2Verbal reasoning

A passage states: 'The committee rejected the proposal, not because the budget was excessive, but because the timeline was unrealistic.' Which conclusion follows most directly?

  1. The committee never discussed the budget.
  2. The committee considered the budget acceptable. Correct answer.
  3. The committee rejected the timeline but approved the budget.
  4. The committee thought the budget was excessive.

Explanation

The construction 'not because X but because Y' explicitly denies X as the reason for rejection and affirms Y. Since the budget was denied as the cause of rejection, the committee did not treat it as the problem.

Question 3Verbal reasoning

Which word in the sentence 'The report, which had been circulated in advance, was barely discussed' functions as an inference signal that the discussion was minimal?

  1. barely Correct answer.
  2. advance
  3. report
  4. circulated

Explanation

'Barely' is a downtoner that quantifies the discussion as almost non-existent, which is the inference the sentence conveys. The other words are descriptive or temporal and do not signal degree.

Question 4Verbal reasoning

A paragraph opens: 'Although teleworking reduces commuting, it may weaken informal knowledge sharing.' What is the function of the word 'Although' here?

  1. It indicates that both clauses express the same idea.
  2. It signals that the second clause is a consequence of the first.
  3. It introduces a concession that qualifies the first claim. Correct answer.
  4. It marks the second clause as an example of the first.

Explanation

'Although' introduces a concessive clause: the speaker grants one point while setting up a contrasting limitation. It does not express causation, exemplification, or equivalence between the clauses.

Question 5Verbal reasoning

A text says: 'Staff surveys reveal low morale. Management has announced a new well-being programme.' Which inference is best supported?

  1. The well-being programme has already raised morale.
  2. Low morale is unrelated to management decisions.
  3. Staff surveys are unreliable according to the text.
  4. The well-being programme was introduced in response to low morale. Correct answer.

Explanation

Placing the survey finding immediately before the announcement invites the inference that the programme responds to the problem identified. The text gives no evidence of results or of unreliability, and the juxtaposition implies a link rather than independence.

Question 6Verbal reasoning

Which option best restates the claim 'Not all applicants who meet the criteria are selected'?

  1. Some applicants who meet the criteria are not selected. Correct answer.
  2. No applicant who meets the criteria is selected.
  3. All applicants who are selected meet the criteria.
  4. All applicants who meet the criteria are selected.

Explanation

'Not all A are B' is logically equivalent to 'some A are not B'. It denies universality without denying that any qualifying applicant is selected.

Question 7Verbal reasoning

A memo states: 'The deadline is 15 March. Submissions received after that date will not be assessed.' An application arrives on 15 March. According to the memo, it is:

  1. Ineligible, because only submissions before 15 March count.
  2. Ineligible, because the deadline has passed.
  3. Eligible only if an extension was granted.
  4. Eligible, because it was not received after 15 March. Correct answer.

Explanation

The exclusion applies only to submissions received after 15 March; a submission on that date is not 'after' it and therefore falls within the accepted window. The memo sets no earlier cut-off and mentions no extension requirement.

Question 8Verbal reasoning

In verbal reasoning, a statement is 'supported by the passage' when:

  1. It repeats the passage word for word.
  2. It is consistent with the author's personal reputation.
  3. It can be derived from information stated or logically implied in the text. Correct answer.
  4. It is true in the real world, whether or not the text says so.

Explanation

Support means the passage itself, through explicit statements or necessary implications, gives grounds for the statement. Outside knowledge and exact wording are not the test; logical derivation from the text is.

Question 9Verbal reasoning

A passage notes that a policy 'has been praised for its ambition but criticised for its vagueness'. Which statement is most consistent with the passage?

  1. The policy has attracted no criticism.
  2. The policy is unambitious but clearly written.
  3. The policy is ambitious and precisely drafted.
  4. The policy is both ambitious and insufficiently precise. Correct answer.

Explanation

The 'but' coordinates two evaluations: praise for ambition and criticism for vagueness, meaning lack of precision. A consistent statement must preserve both halves of the contrast.

Question 10Verbal reasoning

Read: 'Far from resolving the dispute, the meeting deepened it.' What does the sentence imply about expectations?

  1. The meeting was expected to resolve the dispute but did the opposite. Correct answer.
  2. The meeting had no connection to the dispute.
  3. The meeting was expected to deepen the dispute.
  4. The meeting resolved the dispute as expected.

Explanation

'Far from X' sets up an expectation of X and then denies that it was achieved, emphasising the reverse outcome. The meeting was supposed to resolve matters but instead made them worse.

Question 11Verbal reasoning

A text claims: 'Countries that invest most in vocational training tend to report lower youth unemployment.' Which conclusion is warranted?

  1. Countries with low vocational investment have no youth unemployment.
  2. Vocational investment always eliminates youth unemployment.
  3. There is an association between high vocational investment and lower youth unemployment. Correct answer.
  4. Lower youth unemployment causes higher vocational investment.

Explanation

The wording 'tend to report' expresses a correlation, not a universal law or a proven causal direction. Only the association is asserted by the passage.

Question 12Verbal reasoning

A paragraph argues that remote meetings save travel costs, then adds: 'Yet the loss of spontaneous exchange should not be underestimated.' The author's overall position is best described as:

  1. Unreserved enthusiasm for remote meetings
  2. Indifference to the costs of travel
  3. Qualified support for remote meetings Correct answer.
  4. Complete opposition to remote meetings

Explanation

The author acknowledges a benefit but balances it against a real drawback, which is the hallmark of qualified support. Neither pure enthusiasm nor total opposition fits a text that grants points on both sides.

Question 13Verbal reasoning

Which sentence uses 'sanction' in a way consistent with the meaning 'to approve officially'?

  1. The board decided to sanction the new procurement rules. Correct answer.
  2. The board decided to sanction the budget by cutting it.
  3. The board decided to sanction the delay by cancelling the project.
  4. The board decided to sanction the employee for misconduct.

Explanation

'Sanction' is a contronym: it can mean to authorise or to penalise. Approving official rules fits the authorisation sense, which is the meaning specified in the stem.

Question 14Verbal reasoning

A text states: 'Only officials with security clearance may access the archive; visiting researchers may consult it solely with written authorisation.' A visiting researcher without written authorisation:

  1. May consult the archive if accompanied by an official.
  2. May consult the archive only outside office hours.
  3. May not consult the archive. Correct answer.
  4. May consult the archive because researchers are a separate category.

Explanation

The second clause makes written authorisation a necessary condition for visiting researchers. Without it, the permission does not apply, and no accompanying-official or timing exception is granted.

Question 15Verbal reasoning

Read: 'The reform was intended to simplify procedures; in practice it multiplied the forms required.' The second clause functions to:

  1. Contrast the outcome with the stated intention. Correct answer.
  2. Provide an example of simplification.
  3. Restate the intention in different words.
  4. Explain why simplification was desirable.

Explanation

The semicolon joins intention to outcome, and 'in practice' signals that reality diverged from the aim. The clause therefore contrasts actual results with the intended simplification.

Question 16Verbal reasoning

A passage says: 'Critics who dismiss the scheme as costly overlook the savings it generates in the long run.' The author's attitude towards the critics is:

  1. Critical, because they ignore long-term benefits. Correct answer.
  2. Supportive, because they focus on costs.
  3. Admiring, because they are careful with public money.
  4. Neutral, because both views are presented equally.

Explanation

The verb 'overlook' signals that the critics have missed something important, which places the author against their conclusion. The author is not neutral, since only one side is faulted for a blind spot.

Question 17Verbal reasoning

Which option correctly identifies the assumption underlying: 'Since the new software reduced processing time, it should be rolled out to all departments'?

  1. The software was tested in every department already.
  2. Conditions in other departments resemble those where the software was tested. Correct answer.
  3. All departments already use the software.
  4. Processing time is irrelevant to departmental performance.

Explanation

Generalising from a pilot to all departments assumes the pilot conditions are representative of the others. If they were not, the observed benefit might not transfer.

Question 18Verbal reasoning

A text reads: 'The agency published the figures, albeit reluctantly.' What does 'albeit reluctantly' tell the reader?

  1. The figures were not published at all.
  2. The figures were published enthusiastically.
  3. The figures were published by an unknown body.
  4. The figures were published, but with hesitation. Correct answer.

Explanation

'Albeit' concedes a qualification to the main statement, so publication happened but was accompanied by reluctance. It modifies the manner of the action, not its occurrence.

Question 19Verbal reasoning

A memo states: 'Unless the Council approves the draft by June, the programme will be suspended.' Which situation leads to suspension?

  1. The Council approves the draft in early June.
  2. The Council approves the draft in May.
  3. The Council approves the draft before June.
  4. The Council approves the draft in July. Correct answer.

Explanation

'Unless P, Q' means Q occurs if P does not. Approval by June prevents suspension; approval after June means the condition was not met in time, so suspension follows.

Question 20Verbal reasoning

A text states: 'Some member states opposed the directive; others supported it, and a few remained undecided.' Which statement is definitely true?

  1. Not all member states supported the directive. Correct answer.
  2. No member state was undecided.
  3. A majority of member states opposed the directive.
  4. All member states opposed the directive.

Explanation

The existence of opponents and undecided states guarantees that support was not universal. The passage gives no counts, so majority and unanimity claims cannot be verified.

Question 21Verbal reasoning

A paragraph argues: 'Because turnout fell in every region, public interest in the election declined.' Which criticism is most relevant?

  1. Public interest is difficult to spell correctly.
  2. Lower turnout may reflect obstacles to voting rather than reduced interest. Correct answer.
  3. Every region held an election.
  4. Turnout figures are always published late.

Explanation

The argument treats a single indicator as proof of a mental state, ignoring alternative explanations such as procedural barriers. Pointing to a plausible rival cause is the strongest challenge to the inference.

Question 22Verbal reasoning

Read: 'The proposal is not without merit, though its costs are far from negligible.' Which paraphrase preserves the meaning?

  1. The proposal has some value, but its costs are considerable. Correct answer.
  2. The proposal has no value and its costs are trivial.
  3. The proposal is valuable and its costs are negligible.
  4. The proposal is worthless and its costs are considerable.

Explanation

Two litotes appear: 'not without merit' means it has some merit, and 'far from negligible' means the costs are significant. A faithful paraphrase preserves both double negatives as positive statements.

Question 23Verbal reasoning

A text claims: 'All effective managers delegate; Ms Rossi delegates; therefore Ms Rossi is an effective manager.' What is the flaw?

  1. It uses a term ambiguously across premises.
  2. It relies on an unrepresentative sample.
  3. It draws a conclusion that contradicts its premises.
  4. It treats a necessary condition as a sufficient one. Correct answer.

Explanation

Delegating is presented as necessary for effective management, not as proof of it. Affirming the necessary condition does not establish the sufficient one, since ineffective managers might also delegate.

Question 24Verbal reasoning

A passage asserts: 'The decline in bee populations cannot be attributed to a single cause; pesticides, habitat loss and disease each play a part.' Which statement would the author most likely reject?

  1. Pesticides alone explain the decline in bee populations. Correct answer.
  2. Habitat loss contributes to the decline in bee populations.
  3. Multiple factors interact to reduce bee populations.
  4. Disease is one factor among several.

Explanation

The author explicitly denies a single-cause explanation and lists several contributors, so a monocausal claim would be rejected. The other options restate parts of the author's multi-factor position.

Question 25Verbal reasoning

Two statements appear in a report: 'Fewer than half of respondents favoured the change' and 'The change was favoured by a minority of respondents.' How do they relate?

  1. The second contradicts the first.
  2. The statements are unrelated in meaning.
  3. The second is stronger than the first and cannot follow from it.
  4. The second is a logical consequence of the first. Correct answer.

Explanation

'Fewer than half' and 'a minority' express the same quantitative relation, so the second statement restates the first without adding or reversing anything. The entailment holds in both directions here.

Question 26Verbal reasoning

In an EPSO verbal reasoning item, a passage states: 'The committee reviewed the proposal twice before rejecting it.' Which statement is best supported by the passage?

  1. The committee approved the proposal after two reviews.
  2. The committee reviewed the proposal only once.
  3. The committee rejected the proposal without reading it.
  4. The committee considered the proposal on more than one occasion. Correct answer.

Explanation

The passage explicitly says the committee reviewed the proposal twice, which means it considered it on more than one occasion. Nothing in the text suggests approval, absence of reading, or a single review, so only the first option follows directly from the wording.

Question 27Verbal reasoning

A notice reads: 'Staff wishing to attend the briefing must register by Friday; places are allocated on a first-come, first-served basis.' Which conclusion follows?

  1. Registering by Friday guarantees a place at the briefing.
  2. The briefing has unlimited places for all staff.
  3. Early registration improves the chance of obtaining a place. Correct answer.
  4. Staff who do not register may still attend if places remain unallocated.

Explanation

Because places are allocated in order of registration, registering earlier increases the likelihood of securing one. Registration alone does not guarantee a place, and the notice gives no basis for assuming spare capacity or unlimited seating.

Question 28Verbal reasoning

Read: 'The report was concise, if somewhat technical.' What does the phrase 'if somewhat technical' convey?

  1. The report was concise because it was technical.
  2. The report was too technical to be understood.
  3. The report was concise but also rather technical. Correct answer.
  4. The report was neither concise nor technical.

Explanation

The construction 'adjective, if somewhat X' concedes a secondary quality while affirming the main one, so it means the report was concise and also rather technical. It does not imply incomprehensibility, causation, or denial of conciseness.

Question 29Verbal reasoning

A passage states: 'The new guidelines apply to all permanent staff; temporary staff are covered only where their contract expressly provides for it.' Which statement is supported?

  1. Temporary staff are never covered by the guidelines.
  2. Temporary staff are covered only if their contract expressly provides for it. Correct answer.
  3. Permanent staff are covered unless their contract says otherwise.
  4. The guidelines apply equally to permanent and temporary staff.

Explanation

The passage sets a default for permanent staff and a narrower condition for temporary staff: coverage applies only where the contract expressly provides for it. This is exactly what the third option restates.

Question 30Verbal reasoning

Which option best captures the meaning of the word 'notwithstanding' as used in an official text?

  1. Provided that
  2. In the absence of
  3. In spite of Correct answer.
  4. As a result of

Explanation

'Notwithstanding' introduces a factor that does not prevent the stated outcome, so it means 'in spite of'. It does not express a condition, a consequence, or an absence.

Question 31Verbal reasoning

A memo states: 'Overtime will be paid only where prior authorisation has been obtained.' An employee worked overtime without prior authorisation. What follows from the memo?

  1. The employee has no entitlement to overtime pay under the stated rule. Correct answer.
  2. The employee will be disciplined for working overtime.
  3. The memo does not address the employee's situation.
  4. The employee will certainly be paid for the overtime.

Explanation

The rule makes prior authorisation a necessary condition for payment, so overtime worked without it falls outside the entitlement. The memo says nothing about discipline, and it clearly addresses this situation by excluding it.

Question 32Verbal reasoning

Read: 'The director's remarks were brief; they were not, however, inconsequential.' What does the sentence suggest?

  1. The remarks were brief but significant. Correct answer.
  2. The remarks were long and significant.
  3. The remarks were brief and unimportant.
  4. The remarks were long but unimportant.

Explanation

The first clause affirms brevity, and 'not, however, inconsequential' denies that the remarks lacked importance. The combined meaning is that the remarks were short yet significant.

Question 33Verbal reasoning

In an EPSO-style passage, which statement would count as an opinion rather than a fact?

  1. The agency's reporting procedure is unnecessarily cumbersome. Correct answer.
  2. The agency employs 240 staff across three sites.
  3. The agency published its annual report in March.
  4. The agency's budget rose by four per cent last year.

Explanation

A judgement about whether a procedure is 'unnecessarily cumbersome' expresses an evaluative stance that cannot be verified directly. The other statements are factual claims that could be checked against records.

Question 34Verbal reasoning

A passage states: 'Although the training was compulsory, attendance was poor.' Which inference is most reasonable?

  1. Poor attendance led the organisers to make training compulsory.
  2. The training was optional in practice.
  3. Making attendance compulsory did not ensure high attendance. Correct answer.
  4. Staff were unaware that the training was compulsory.

Explanation

The contrast between compulsion and poor attendance shows that a compulsory requirement did not produce high turnout. The passage does not indicate ignorance, optional status, or a reversed causal sequence.

Question 35Verbal reasoning

A text reads: 'The proposal was welcomed by some delegations and greeted with scepticism by others.' Which statement is supported?

  1. Most delegations supported the proposal.
  2. Reactions among delegations were divided. Correct answer.
  3. All delegations welcomed the proposal.
  4. No delegation expressed scepticism.

Explanation

The passage sets welcome against scepticism, indicating a split in reactions rather than a uniform view. It gives no indication of which side was larger.

Question 36Verbal reasoning

Read: 'Far from simplifying the procedure, the reform added two new approval stages.' What does the sentence imply about the reform's aim?

  1. The reform was intended to add approval stages.
  2. The reform had no stated purpose.
  3. The reform successfully simplified the procedure.
  4. The reform was intended to simplify the procedure. Correct answer.

Explanation

'Far from simplifying' presupposes that simplification was the expected or intended outcome, which the reform failed to deliver. The added stages are presented as a departure from that aim, not as its purpose.

Question 37Verbal reasoning

A report notes: 'The measure was adopted despite widespread opposition from stakeholders.' Which conclusion is best supported?

  1. The measure was withdrawn because of stakeholder opposition.
  2. Opposition from stakeholders prevented adoption.
  3. The measure was adopted even though many stakeholders opposed it. Correct answer.
  4. Stakeholders approved the measure after consultation.

Explanation

'Despite' signals that the opposition did not stop adoption, so the measure went ahead in the face of opposition. The passage does not say the stakeholders changed their view or that the measure was withdrawn.

Question 38Verbal reasoning

A text claims: 'Applicants who submit incomplete files are rejected.' Marco's file was complete, and his application was rejected. What can be concluded?

  1. Marco's rejection proves the rule is false.
  2. The stated rule does not explain Marco's rejection. Correct answer.
  3. Marco's file must have been incomplete.
  4. Complete files are always accepted.

Explanation

The rule makes incompleteness a sufficient condition for rejection, not a necessary one, so other grounds for rejection may exist. A complete file that is rejected therefore falls outside what the rule explains.

Question 39Verbal reasoning

Read: 'The findings, while preliminary, warrant serious attention.' Which paraphrase preserves the meaning?

  1. The findings deserve attention although they are not yet final. Correct answer.
  2. The findings deserve attention because they are preliminary.
  3. The findings are too preliminary to deserve attention.
  4. The findings are final and therefore deserve attention.

Explanation

'While preliminary' concedes that the findings are not yet conclusive, and the main clause asserts that they deserve attention anyway. The paraphrase must keep both the concession and the endorsement.

Question 40Verbal reasoning

A passage argues: 'Because the number of complaints rose after the new system was introduced, the system must be at fault.' Which criticism best identifies the weakness?

  1. The passage relies on the opinion of system users.
  2. The passage treats a sequence of events as proof of cause. Correct answer.
  3. The passage assumes that complaints are always justified.
  4. The passage ignores the number of complaints before the change.

Explanation

The argument moves from 'after' to 'because of', which is the classic post hoc error of inferring causation from succession. Other factors may have changed at the same time, so the temporal link alone does not establish cause.

Question 41Verbal reasoning

A text states: 'The scheme is open to all staff, provided they have completed the induction course.' Which statement is supported?

  1. Staff who have not completed the induction course cannot join the scheme. Correct answer.
  2. Only senior staff may join the scheme.
  3. Completing the induction course guarantees participation in the scheme.
  4. The induction course is optional for scheme participants.

Explanation

'Provided they have completed the induction course' sets a necessary condition, so those who have not completed it are excluded. Meeting the condition is required but does not by itself guarantee a place.

Question 42Verbal reasoning

Read: 'The delegation stopped short of rejecting the proposal outright.' What does the sentence indicate?

  1. The delegation refused to discuss the proposal.
  2. The delegation did not fully reject the proposal. Correct answer.
  3. The delegation accepted the proposal without reservation.
  4. The delegation rejected the proposal outright.

Explanation

'Stopped short of' means the delegation approached but did not reach outright rejection, leaving room for partial or conditional positions. It therefore indicates something less than full rejection.

Question 43Verbal reasoning

A report states: 'Fewer than a third of respondents said they understood the new rules.' Which conclusion is supported?

  1. Exactly one third of respondents understood the new rules.
  2. Most respondents understood the new rules.
  3. A minority of respondents said they understood the new rules. Correct answer.
  4. No respondent understood the new rules.

Explanation

Fewer than a third is less than half, so those claiming understanding formed a minority. The passage does not support claims about a majority, about nobody, or about an exact proportion.

Question 44Verbal reasoning

A passage says: 'The author's tone is measured, even when discussing failures that others describe in alarmist terms.' Which statement best describes the author's stance?

  1. The author avoids discussing failures altogether.
  2. The author discusses failures calmly rather than dramatically. Correct answer.
  3. The author exaggerates the severity of failures.
  4. The author adopts the alarmist language of others.

Explanation

'Measured' means restrained and calm, and the contrast with alarmist descriptions confirms that the author avoids dramatic language. The passage indicates the author does address failures, but soberly.

Question 45Verbal reasoning

A text reads: 'The committee's recommendation was unanimous, though not all members attended.' Which statement is supported?

  1. The committee postponed its recommendation.
  2. Every member of the committee attended and agreed.
  3. Those members present agreed on the recommendation. Correct answer.
  4. The recommendation was rejected by absent members.

Explanation

Unanimity applies to those who took part, and the concession that not all members attended limits the claim to attendees. The passage gives no information about the views of absent members.

Question 46Verbal reasoning

Read: 'It would be a mistake to regard the two reports as interchangeable.' What does the sentence imply?

  1. Both reports contain mistakes.
  2. The two reports differ in important respects. Correct answer.
  3. The two reports are essentially the same.
  4. One report should replace the other.

Explanation

Saying it would be a mistake to treat the reports as interchangeable implies they are not equivalent and therefore differ meaningfully. The sentence concerns their distinctness, not errors within them or substitution.

Question 47Verbal reasoning

A passage argues: 'No effective policy can ignore local conditions. The draft policy ignores local conditions. Therefore the draft policy is not effective.' Which statement about the reasoning is accurate?

  1. The argument is invalid because the premise about local conditions is irrelevant.
  2. The argument is invalid because it confuses a necessary condition with a sufficient one.
  3. The argument is valid: it applies a stated necessary condition. Correct answer.
  4. The argument is circular because it assumes the conclusion.

Explanation

If no effective policy can ignore local conditions, then attending to local conditions is necessary for effectiveness. A policy that ignores them therefore cannot be effective, so the argument validly applies the stated condition.

Question 48Verbal reasoning

A text states: 'The reduction in emissions was modest but real, and it occurred while output grew.' Which inference is best supported?

  1. Emissions fell despite an increase in output. Correct answer.
  2. Emissions fell because output grew.
  3. The emissions reduction was negligible and doubtful.
  4. Output fell while emissions rose.

Explanation

The passage reports that emissions fell at the same time as output rose, which supports the inference that the fall occurred despite growth. It does not establish that growth caused the fall, nor does it reverse the trends.

Question 49Verbal reasoning

A report claims: 'Either the delay was caused by staffing shortages or by outdated equipment.' It later emerges that new staff were recruited before the delay. Which statement about the claim is accurate?

  1. The claim is unaffected because it presents two possible causes.
  2. The recruitment of new staff proves that outdated equipment caused the delay.
  3. The recruitment of new staff shows that neither explanation can be correct.
  4. The recruitment of new staff weakens the staffing-shortage explanation but does not establish the alternative. Correct answer.

Explanation

Evidence undercutting one branch of an either/or explanation reduces support for that branch without confirming the other. The alternative remains a possibility rather than a proven cause, so the claim is weakened but not resolved.

Question 50Verbal reasoning

Read: 'The rapporteur's conclusions were broadly endorsed, albeit with qualifications that narrowed their scope.' Which statement best captures the outcome?

  1. The conclusions were rejected and replaced.
  2. The conclusions were narrowed because they were not endorsed.
  3. The conclusions were endorsed without any change.
  4. The conclusions were accepted in principle but limited in application. Correct answer.

Explanation

Broad endorsement indicates general acceptance, while qualifications narrowing scope mean the conclusions apply less widely than first stated. Both elements must be retained in the paraphrase.