NGSA English flashcards

32 cards. Read the term and the definition here. The deck at the top of this page is optional.

Subject-verb agreement

The rule that a verb must match its simple subject in number and person, ignoring interrupting phrases. Example: "The list of items is long" - "list" is singular, so "is" is correct.

Compound subject agreement

Two subjects joined by "and" take a plural verb; subjects joined by "or" or "nor" take a verb matching the nearer subject. Example: "Neither the coach nor the players were ready."

Indefinite pronoun number

Pronouns like each, either, neither, everyone, anybody, and nobody are singular and take singular verbs. Both, few, many, and several are plural. Example: "Everyone is here."

Who versus whom

Use "who" for a subject and "whom" for an object. Test by substituting he/she (who) or him/her (whom). Example: "Whom did she call?" because she called him.

Its versus it's

"Its" is the possessive form showing ownership, as in "The dog wagged its tail." "It's" is a contraction meaning "it is" or "it has."

Dangling modifier

An introductory phrase that does not logically modify the subject of the main clause. "Walking home, the sign appeared" wrongly makes the sign walk; rewrite as "Walking home, I saw the sign."

Past perfect tense

The tense formed with "had" plus a past participle. It marks the earlier of two past actions. Example: "She had finished before the bell rang."

Context clues

Hints inside a sentence that reveal an unfamiliar word's meaning, including restatement, contrast, examples, and cause-effect signals. Example: "Frugal, or thrifty, shoppers" uses restatement.

Denotation versus connotation

Denotation is a word's literal dictionary meaning; connotation is the emotional association it carries. "Thrifty" and "stingy" denote saving money but carry positive and negative connotations.

Common Greek and Latin roots

Word parts that carry core meaning across many words: -dict- (say), -spect- (look), -port- (carry), -scrib- (write), -cred- (believe), -bene- (good), -mal- (bad), -aud- (hear).

Prefix meanings

Word parts added before a root that change meaning: un-/in-/non- (not), re- (again), pre- (before), post- (after), sub- (under), super- (above), anti- (against), mis- (wrongly).

Homophones

Words that sound alike but differ in spelling and meaning, such as cite/site/sight, principal/principle, affect/effect, and complement/compliment. Context determines the correct choice.

Analogy relationships

The logical link between a pair of words, such as part-to-whole, cause-effect, synonym, antonym, degree, or function. Identify the link before choosing a matching pair.

Reticent versus reluctant

"Reticent" means unwilling to speak or share feelings; "reluctant" means unwilling to act generally. Choosing the precise word depends on whether speech or action is involved.

Main idea

The central point of a passage, formed by combining the topic with what the author says about it. It is broad enough to cover the whole text, unlike a supporting detail.

Inference

A conclusion drawn logically from evidence in the text but not stated directly. A valid inference is supported by specific details, not by outside knowledge or guesswork.

Author's purpose

The reason a writer produces a text: to inform or explain, to persuade or argue, or to entertain or narrate. Word choice and tone signals reveal which purpose is at work.

Tone versus mood

Tone is the author's attitude toward the subject; mood is the feeling the text creates in the reader. A sarcastic tone, for example, may produce an uncomfortable mood.

Text structures

The organizational patterns of a passage: cause-effect, compare-contrast, chronological sequence, problem-solution, description, and claim-evidence. Transition words signal which structure is used.

Fact versus opinion

A fact can be verified with evidence; an opinion expresses judgment or belief and often uses words like best, should, beautiful, or seems. Distinguishing them supports critical reading.

Supporting details

Specific pieces of evidence - examples, statistics, quotations, or explanations - that explain or prove the main idea. They answer who, what, when, where, why, or how.

Comma splice

An error in which two independent clauses are joined only by a comma. Correct it with a period, a semicolon, or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction.

Semicolon uses

A semicolon joins two closely related independent clauses or separates series items that already contain commas. Example: "We visited Paris, France; Rome, Italy; and Madrid, Spain."

Apostrophe for possession

Add 's to a singular noun (dog's bone); add only an apostrophe to a plural ending in -s (dogs' bones); add 's to an irregular plural (children's toys).

Possessive pronouns

Pronouns showing ownership that never take an apostrophe: its, whose, yours, hers, ours, theirs. Adding an apostrophe creates a contraction instead, as in "it's" meaning "it is."

I before e rule

Spell i before e except after c or when the sound is "ay": receive and ceiling follow c; neighbor and weigh sound like "ay." Exceptions exist, such as weird and seize.

Doubling final consonants

Double the final consonant before a vowel suffix when a word is one syllable or stress falls on the last syllable: run → running, begin → beginning. Do not double otherwise: visit → visiting.

Hyphen in compound modifiers

Hyphenate a compound modifier that precedes the noun it describes (a well-known author, a two-year-old child) but not when it follows the noun (the author is well known).

Sentence structures

Simple has one independent clause; compound has two or more; complex has one independent plus at least one dependent clause; compound-complex has two or more independent plus at least one dependent.

Sentence fragment

A group of words punctuated as a sentence but missing a subject, a verb, or a complete thought. Example: "Because the rain stopped" is dependent and cannot stand alone.

Parallel structure

Using the same grammatical form for items in a series or comparison. "Reading, writing, and editing" is parallel; "reading, writing, and to edit" is not.

Active versus passive voice

In active voice the subject performs the action ("The chef cooked the meal"); in passive voice the subject receives it ("The meal was cooked by the chef"). Active is usually clearer and more direct.