HKDSE ERS key terms

The capacity to reach and act on one's own moral judgements through reasoning, rather than simply obeying authority or convention; central to the HKDSE emphasis on independent ethical thinking.

A condition in which a person's moral choices are dictated by external forces such as parents, peers, law or tradition, without independent reflection; contrasted with autonomy in ethical development.

The process of weighing reasons, principles and consequences to decide what one ought to do, and of justifying that decision to others through argument rather than assertion.

Giving publicly defensible reasons for a moral judgement or action, showing why it is right beyond personal preference; a key skill assessed in HKDSE essay responses.

A situation in which a person must choose between competing moral obligations, so that any available option involves some moral cost or violation.

A clash between two or more values or principles held by a person or society, such as freedom versus security, which cannot all be fully satisfied at once.

An evaluative claim about what is good, right, desirable or worthy, as opposed to a factual description; such claims require justification and cannot be settled by observation alone.

An inner sense of right and wrong that prompts feelings of obligation, guilt or unease about one's conduct; understood differently by religious and secular ethical traditions.

The view that moral judgements are true only relative to a particular culture, society or individual, so there are no universal moral standards binding on everyone.

The view that some moral rules hold unconditionally, regardless of culture or consequences, so certain acts are always wrong even if they produce good results.

A family of ethical theories holding that the rightness of an action depends solely on its outcomes; the best action is the one producing the best overall results.

A consequentialist theory holding that an action is right if it maximises overall welfare or happiness for all affected, weighing each person's interests equally.

Ethical theories judging actions by whether they fulfil duties or respect rules and rights, independent of the consequences those actions happen to produce.

Kant's test of moral rules: act only on maxims you could will as universal law, and treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means.

The view, prominent in Catholic ethics, that reason can discern basic goods and moral norms built into human nature, which govern human flourishing independently of positive law.

An approach focusing on the character traits of the agent rather than on rules or outcomes, asking what a virtuous person would do and how character can be cultivated.

Aristotle's idea that each virtue lies between two vices of excess and deficiency, so courage sits between recklessness and cowardice; virtue is found by practical wisdom.

The inherent worth of every person, grounding claims that humans must not be treated merely as tools or objects; a shared reference point across religious and secular ethics.

Entitlements held by all people by virtue of being human, such as life, liberty and freedom of thought, often claimed to be universal, inalienable and indivisible.

The fair distribution of benefits, burdens and opportunities within a society, including concern for the poor and marginalised and for fair access to resources.

The belief that humans are entrusted with caring for the world and its resources on behalf of a creator, implying responsibility rather than unrestricted ownership.

The belief that human life is sacred and possesses intrinsic value because it is God-given, so it should not be deliberately destroyed or treated as merely instrumental.

An assessment of how far a person's life contains wellbeing, relationships and freedom from suffering; used in debates about medical treatment and end-of-life decisions.

The Latin phrase 'image of God', teaching that every human being bears God's likeness, which grounds equal dignity and prohibitions on treating persons as disposable.

Deliberately ending a person's life to relieve suffering, whether voluntary, non-voluntary or involuntary; a major applied-ethics topic in religious and secular debate.

Holistic care relieving pain and distress for seriously ill patients without intending to end life, often presented as an alternative response to suffering at the end of life.

The deliberate termination of a pregnancy before birth; debated through claims about the moral status of the fetus, the mother's rights and the value of life.

Testing embryos created by IVF for genetic conditions before implantation; raises ethical questions about selection, disability and the status of the embryo.

The state-sanctioned killing of a person as punishment for a crime; debated through arguments about retribution, deterrence, human dignity and the risk of error.

A tradition setting moral conditions for going to war (just cause, proper authority, last resort, proportionality) and for conduct within war (discrimination, non-combatant immunity).

The position that war and violence are morally wrong and should be avoided or refused, often grounded in the value of life or in religious teaching about love and reconciliation.

The branch of ethics examining sexual behaviour, relationships and norms, including questions about consent, marriage, fidelity and the purposes of sexuality.

The study of moral relations between humans and the natural world, including the value of non-human life and duties regarding pollution, consumption and climate change.

The study of moral standards in commercial activity, covering honesty in advertising, fair treatment of workers, conflicts of interest and corporate responsibility.

The growing interconnection of economies, cultures and communication across borders, raising ethical questions about inequality, exploitation and cultural identity.

A structured procedure for resolving moral problems, typically gathering facts, identifying stakeholders and values, generating options, weighing consequences and principles, then deciding and reviewing.

An individual's claimed encounter with the divine, such as a sense of presence, mystical union or answered prayer; used as evidence in arguments for God's existence.

The vocabulary and forms used to speak about the divine, raising questions of whether such language is literal, analogical, symbolic or merely expressive of attitude.

The relationship between religious belief and rational inquiry, including whether faith must be supported by argument, can exceed reason, or conflicts with science.