JC English cheat sheet

Main idea = the claim the whole passage supports; a detail appearing in only one paragraph is not the main idea.

Question stems with 'mainly', 'chiefly', 'best title' ask for main idea; 'according to the passage' asks for literal detail.

Inference answers must be forced by the text; if an option needs outside knowledge, it is wrong even when true.

Tone words: critical, nostalgic, ironic, objective, cautious - match the writer's attitude toward the subject, not the subject's own mood.

Sequence questions: locate time markers (then, after, by the time, once) before ranking events.

'EXCEPT' and 'NOT' questions: three options are supported, one is not; verify each option against a line.

Vocabulary-in-context: substitute each option into the sentence and keep the one that preserves the surrounding logic.

Author's purpose options map to persuade, inform/explain, entertain, or describe; purpose is about the writer's aim, not the topic.

Referents (it, this, they) resolve to the nearest preceding noun phrase that agrees in number and makes sense.

Subject-verb agreement: ignore prepositional phrases between subject and verb; 'each, every, everyone, neither' take singular verbs.

Neither/nor and either/or: the verb agrees with the nearer subject ('Neither the boys nor the teacher was').

Present perfect (have/has + past participle) links past to present; simple past takes finished time markers (yesterday, in 2019).

Past perfect (had + participle) marks the earlier of two past events; the later event uses simple past.

Conditionals: zero (if + present, present), first (if + present, will), second (if + past, would), third (if + had + participle, would have).

Relative pronouns: 'who' for people, 'which' for things, 'whose' for possession, 'that' for defining clauses only.

Dangling modifier: an introductory participial phrase must describe the subject of the main clause.

Comma rules: no comma splices; use a semicolon or conjunction between two independent clauses.

Comparatives: one-syllable adjectives add -er/-est; longer take more/most; never double them ('more better' is wrong).

Denotation is dictionary meaning; connotation is the positive, negative, or neutral charge a word carries.

Synonyms rarely interchange perfectly: check register (formal/informal) and collocation before choosing.

Common confusable pairs: affect (verb) / effect (noun); principal (main, or school head) / principle (rule); lie (recline) / lay (place).

Prefixes: un-, in-, dis-, non- negate; re- again; pre- before; post- after; mis- wrongly; over-/under- excess or deficiency.

Suffixes signal part of speech: -tion/-ment/-ness nouns, -ful/-ive/-ous adjectives, -ly adverbs, -ify/-ise verbs.

Context clue types: definition (is, means), example (such as), contrast (but, unlike), cause-effect (therefore, because).

Idioms are fixed: 'break the ice' means start a conversation, not literally crack frozen water.

Formal academic register avoids contractions, slang, and vague words such as 'stuff' or 'a lot of'.

False friends and near-misses: test the word in a full sentence and confirm the part of speech fits the slot.

Paragraph structure: topic sentence, supporting evidence, explanation, and a closing or linking sentence.

Thesis statement appears in the introduction, states a debatable claim, and previews the structure of the essay.

Essay skeleton: introduction, body paragraphs each with one idea, conclusion that restates the thesis without new evidence.

Cohesion devices: pronouns, synonyms, and transitions (however, therefore, in addition, by contrast) link sentences logically.

Narrative arc: orientation, rising action, climax, resolution; consistent tense and point of view throughout.

Formal letter or email: salutation, purpose in the first line, body, closing formula, signature; no slang.

Punctuation of quotations: comma or colon before a full-sentence quote; period inside quotation marks in American style.

Redundancy and wordiness: cut 'due to the fact that' to 'because', 'in order to' to 'to', and repeated synonyms.

Editing pass order: content and organization first, then sentence structure, then spelling and punctuation.

Predict from the question stem before audio plays: identify whether you need a number, a reason, a place, or an attitude.

Signal words flag answers: 'but', 'however', 'actually' often introduce the correction after a distractor.

Numbers, dates, and names are frequently self-corrected; record the final figure spoken, not the first.

Distinguish gist questions ('mainly about') from detail questions ('what time', 'how much').

Inference items rely on tone, stress, and hesitation; a rising intonation can mark uncertainty or a question.

Note-taking shorthand: abbreviations, arrows for cause-effect, and symbols for increase/decrease save time.

Speakers' attitudes are cued by adjectives and adverbs ('unfortunately', 'surprisingly'), not only by content.

Listen for discourse markers that structure a talk: 'first', 'next', 'to sum up', 'on the other hand'.

If a detail is missed, keep listening; a later sentence often restates or clarifies it.

Fluency is measured by continuity and pace, not by absence of accent; pauses should fall at clause boundaries.

Word stress in English carries meaning: 'REcord' (noun) versus 'reCORD' (verb); stress the content words, weaken function words.

Intonation: falling tone for statements and wh-questions; rising tone for yes/no questions and lists except the last item.

Connected speech features: linking (an_apple), elision (next day → 'nex day'), assimilation (don't you → 'doncha').

Turn-taking markers: 'Sorry to interrupt', 'Could I just add', 'Going back to your point' manage conversation flow.

Presentation structure: signpost the introduction, signpost each main point, summarize, invite questions.

Filler reduction: replace 'um' and 'you know' with a brief silent pause or a discourse marker such as 'well'.

Paraphrasing strategy: if a word is unknown, describe it ('the thing you use to…') rather than stopping.

Register shifts: contracted forms and informal idioms suit conversation; full forms suit formal presentations.