JC English key terms

The most important point a passage or talk is making, which the other details explain or support. A reader or listener should be able to state it in one sentence.

A fact, example, or reason that backs up the main idea of a text. Details answer questions like who, what, when, where, why, and how.

A sentence, usually first in a paragraph, that states the paragraph's central point. The remaining sentences develop or illustrate that point.

A conclusion drawn from clues in a text rather than stated directly. Skilled readers combine evidence with background knowledge to infer meaning, attitude, or what will happen next.

Information in the surrounding words or sentences that helps a reader work out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Clues include definitions, examples, contrasts, and restatements.

The reason a writer produces a text, such as to inform, persuade, entertain, or instruct. Identifying purpose helps a reader judge how the information should be interpreted.

The attitude a writer or speaker conveys through word choice and phrasing, for example humorous, critical, or sympathetic. Tone differs from mood, which is the feeling created in the reader.

Reading quickly through a text to locate a specific piece of information, such as a date or name, without reading every word. It is useful for answering detail questions efficiently.

Reading rapidly to get the general sense of a text, often by focusing on headings, first sentences, and key words. It is used before detailed reading or to answer main-idea questions.

The quality that makes a text flow logically, with ideas connected in a clear order. Coherence depends on sensible organization as well as on linking words.

The way sentences in a text are tied together through pronouns, repeated words, and linking devices. Strong cohesion makes clear which ideas refer back to which.

A word or phrase such as however, therefore, or in addition that signals the relationship between ideas. Transition words guide readers through contrast, cause, sequence, or addition.

A word that names a person, place, thing, or idea, such as teacher, city, book, or freedom. Nouns can be common or proper, countable or uncountable, and singular or plural.

A word that expresses an action or a state of being, such as run, think, or seem. Verbs change form to show tense, aspect, and agreement with the subject.

A word that describes or gives more information about a noun, such as tall, quiet, or expensive. Adjectives can appear before a noun or after a linking verb.

A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, often telling how, when, or how often, as in quickly, yesterday, or very. Many adverbs end in -ly.

The form of a verb that shows when an action happens, such as present, past, or future. Tense must be consistent and appropriate to the time frame of the sentence.

A verb form made with have or has plus a past participle, used for past actions linked to the present or for experience at an unstated time, as in I have finished.

The verb form used after have or be, often ending in -ed for regular verbs, as in walked, or irregular as in written. It forms perfect tenses and the passive voice.

A sentence structure in which the subject receives the action rather than performing it, formed with be plus a past participle, as in The window was broken.

A sentence structure in which the subject performs the action of the verb, as in The dog chased the ball. Active voice is usually clearer and more direct than passive voice.

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number and person, so a singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb.

The relationship between a pronoun such as he, it, or they and the noun it stands for. Clear reference means the reader can tell exactly which noun is meant.

A clause introduced by who, which, that, or whose that describes a noun, as in the book that I borrowed. It can be defining or non-defining, which affects punctuation.

A sentence expressing a condition and its result, usually with if, such as If it rains, we will stay home. Different forms express real, unreal, or past unreal situations.

A helping verb such as can, must, should, or might that expresses ability, obligation, permission, or possibility. Modal verbs are followed by the base form of the main verb.

An error in which two independent clauses are joined only by a comma, as in I was tired, I went to bed. It should be fixed with a conjunction, a semicolon, or a full stop.

The marks used in writing, including full stops, commas, semicolons, colons, and question marks, to separate ideas and clarify meaning. Correct punctuation prevents misreading.

A word with a meaning close to that of another word, such as begin and start. Synonyms are rarely identical in use, so register and collocation still matter.

A word with an opposite meaning to another, such as hot and cold. Antonyms help readers understand contrast and can clarify a word's meaning through context.

A combination of words that native speakers naturally use together, such as make a decision or heavy rain. Learning collocations makes writing and speech sound accurate and fluent.

A fixed expression whose meaning cannot be worked out from its individual words, such as break the ice. Idioms are common in speech and informal writing.

A verb combined with a particle or preposition that creates a new meaning, such as give up or look after. The meaning often differs from the base verb.

The level of formality in language, ranging from casual speech to formal writing. Choosing the right register means matching vocabulary and grammar to the audience and situation.

A word part added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning, such as un- in unhappy or re- in rewrite. Knowing common prefixes helps build vocabulary.

A word part added to the end of a word that often changes its grammatical class, such as -ness in kindness or -ful in hopeful. Suffixes help identify whether a word is a noun, verb, or adjective.

A sentence, usually near the start of an essay, that states the main argument or position. It guides the structure of the whole piece and should be specific.

The quality of a paragraph in which every sentence relates to one central point. Unity is achieved by removing irrelevant ideas and keeping the topic sentence in focus.

A plan that lists the main points and supporting ideas of a piece of writing in order. It helps a writer organize ideas before drafting and check the logic of the structure.

Writing that avoids slang, contractions, and casual expressions, using complete sentences and precise vocabulary. It suits essays, reports, and official communication.

The final stage of checking a piece of writing for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. It is done after revising content and organization.

The general meaning or main point of something heard or read, without every detail. Listeners often grasp the gist before understanding specific words.

Listening with the aim of catching specific information such as numbers, names, or times. It usually requires focused attention and may involve note-taking.

Writing brief records of key points while listening or reading, using abbreviations and symbols. Good notes capture main ideas and important details without distracting from comprehension.

An answer option or piece of information designed to seem correct but is not. Recognizing distractors helps candidates avoid choosing answers based on a single familiar word.

The rise and fall of the voice in speech, which can signal a question, emphasis, or emotion. Intonation often carries meaning beyond the words themselves.

The extra force placed on a particular syllable or word in speech. Correct word stress helps listeners recognize words, and sentence stress highlights important information.

The way in which words are spoken, including individual sounds, stress, and rhythm. Clear pronunciation supports mutual understanding in conversation.

The ability to speak smoothly and at a reasonable pace without excessive hesitation. Fluency involves natural rhythm and the capacity to keep a conversation going.

The practice of letting speakers alternate in a conversation, with each person knowing when to speak and when to listen. It is a key part of managing spoken interaction.

A short word or phrase such as well, actually, or by the way that organizes speech and signals a speaker's intention. Markers make conversation sound natural and coherent.