AP Intermediate Civics (BIEAP) cheat sheet

State = population + territory + government + sovereignty; sovereignty (internal supremacy, external independence) is the defining element.

Elements of the state are cumulative: absence of defined territory or of sovereign authority means it is not a state in the legal sense.

Sovereignty: internal (supreme law-making authority within territory) and external (freedom from foreign control); Austin located it in a determinate sovereign.

Monism vs pluralism: monists treat sovereignty as indivisible and located in one body; pluralists (Laski, Figgis, Cole) see associations sharing authority.

Theories of state origin: divine right, social contract (Hobbes - security; Locke - consent and trust; Rousseau - general will), and evolutionary/institutional accounts.

Power vs authority vs legitimacy: power is capacity to compel, authority is recognised right to command, legitimacy is belief that rule is justified (Weber: traditional, charismatic, legal-rational).

Forms of government: monarchy, aristocracy, democracy (direct vs representative); Aristotle classified by number of rulers and by whether rule serves common good or rulers' interest.

Liberty is not licence: negative liberty = absence of restraint; positive liberty = capacity for self-realisation; Mill's harm principle limits interference to prevention of harm to others.

Equality: formal (equal treatment before law) vs substantive (equal opportunity, differential treatment to correct disadvantage); justice as fairness (Rawls) uses the difference principle.

Constitutionalism means limited government under a higher law; a constitution that merely organises power without limiting it is not constitutional government.

Constitution types: written/unwritten, rigid/flexible, federal/unitary, and evolved/enacted; the UK is unwritten and flexible, India written and partly rigid.

Rule of law (Dicey): no punishment without a legal breach, equality before the law, and rights arising from ordinary court decisions rather than special declarations.

Separation of powers (Montesquieu): legislature, executive and judiciary exercised by distinct organs with checks; India uses a functional, flexible separation with judicial review.

Checks and balances: veto, judicial review, legislative confirmation, impeachment, and federal division of power restrain each organ.

A constitution typically provides: preamble, fundamental rights, organs of government, distribution of powers, and amendment procedure.

Rigidity is measured by the amendment procedure: special majorities or state ratification make a constitution rigid; ordinary legislative majorities make it flexible.

Political vs legal constitution: the legal text may differ from the working conventions and practices that actually govern institutions.

Bicameralism: upper houses represent units (states, regions) and revise legislation; India's Rajya Sabha has 250 max seats, 12 nominated by the President for special knowledge.

Money bills: introduced only in the lower house on executive recommendation; the upper house can delay but not amend or reject, and must return within 14 days.

Parliamentary vs presidential executive: parliamentary executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature; presidential executive is separately elected with fixed tenure.

Collective responsibility: the council of ministers is jointly answerable to the Lok Sabha; loss of confidence requires resignation.

Judicial review: courts may strike down laws and executive action violating the constitution; India follows procedure established by law plus substantive review (basic structure, arbitrariness).

Judicial independence devices: security of tenure, salary charged to consolidated fund, appointment by collegium/consultation, and contempt power.

Judicial activism vs restraint: activism expands standing (public interest litigation) and remedies; restraint defers to the legislature unless a clear constitutional violation exists.

Legislative procedure: ordinary bill needs passage in both houses and assent; constitutional amendment bills need special majority (and state ratification for federal provisions).

Federal features of India: written constitution, dual polity, division of powers (Union, State, Concurrent lists), bicameralism, and constitutional supremacy.

Unitary features: single citizenship, single integrated judiciary, Governor appointed by the Centre, emergency provisions, and residuary powers with the Union.

Seventh Schedule: Union List (defence, foreign affairs, currency), State List (police, public health, agriculture), Concurrent List (education, forests, criminal law); residuary powers rest with Parliament.

Article 249: Parliament may legislate on a State List subject if the Rajya Sabha so resolves by two-thirds of members present and voting.

Article 356 (President's Rule): on failure of constitutional machinery in a state; since S.R. Bommai (1994) the proclamation is subject to judicial review and floor test.

Finance: Finance Commission (Article 280) recommends devolution of taxes; GST Council (101st Amendment) decides rates; centrally sponsored schemes shape state spending.

Cooperative and competitive federalism: inter-state councils (Article 263), NITI Aayog, and zonal councils are coordination bodies, not constitutional courts.

Inter-state water disputes are adjudicated by tribunals under the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act; the Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction over tribunal awards.

Part III rights: equality (14-18), freedom (19-22), against exploitation (23-24), religion (25-28), cultural and educational (29-30), and constitutional remedies (32).

Article 32 (right to constitutional remedies) is itself a fundamental right; the Supreme Court can issue the five writs - habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, certiorari, quo warranto.

Article 19 freedoms are subject to reasonable restrictions: speech and expression, assembly, association, movement, residence, and profession.

Article 21 has been expanded to include right to life with dignity, privacy (Puttaswamy, 2017), clean environment, and speedy trial.

Fundamental rights are enforceable against the state; Article 13 makes laws inconsistent with Part III void, and the basic structure doctrine protects rights from amendment.

Directive Principles (Part IV) are non-justiciable but fundamental in governance; Article 37 makes them a duty of the state in making laws.

Conflict resolution: rights prevail over directive principles where a law violates Part III, but courts increasingly read DPSPs into Article 21.

Fundamental Duties (Article 51A, added by 42nd Amendment 1976): eleven duties including respecting the Constitution and protecting the environment; non-enforceable by courts.

Article 31C protects laws implementing certain DPSPs, but the protection does not extend to laws destroying the basic structure.

Election Commission of India (Article 324): superintendence, direction and control of elections to Parliament, state legislatures, and offices of President and Vice-President.

First-past-the-post: candidate with the highest votes wins; can win with a minority of votes cast, so seat share diverges from vote share.

Proportional representation: seats allocated in proportion to votes; used in India for Rajya Sabha and President elections via single transferable vote.

Anti-defection (Tenth Schedule): disqualification for voluntarily giving up party membership or voting against party whip; exception for a merger of two-thirds of a legislature party.

Model Code of Conduct: operative from announcement of elections until results; regulates campaigning, expenditure and use of official machinery.

NOTA (2013) allows rejection of all candidates but does not force a re-election; it has no effect on the winner's margin.

Electoral roll and adult suffrage: every citizen 18 or above is entitled to register; Article 326 sets the voting age.

Political party registration under Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951; recognition as state or national party depends on vote-share and seat thresholds.

Election expenditure and candidate funding are regulated by the RP Act; electoral bonds and donation disclosure rules have been litigated before the Supreme Court.

All-India Services (IAS, IPS, IFoS) are recruited by the Union and serve both Union and states; state services are recruited by state public service commissions.

Article 315: Public Service Commissions for the Union and states; members appointed by the President or Governor and removable only for misbehaviour after Supreme Court inquiry.

Civil service values: neutrality, anonymity, merit-based recruitment, and rule-bound action; the minister takes political responsibility, the civil servant gives advice.

New Public Management: results and performance contracting, citizen charters, e-governance, and outsourcing replace purely hierarchical administration.

Good governance indicators: transparency (RTI Act 2005), accountability, participation, and rule of law; Lokpal and Lokayuktas address corruption.

Budget cycle: preparation by finance ministry, presentation, departmental standing committees, appropriation act, and audit by CAG (Article 148).

Administrative tribunals (Article 323A) and CAT hear service matters; their decisions are subject to Supreme Court and High Court judicial review.

Principal-agent problem and moral hazard explain why oversight institutions (CAG, CVC, CBI) exist alongside departmental hierarchies.

Kautilya's Arthashastra: statecraft, saptanga (seven limbs of the state), danda (coercion) and matsyanyaya (law of the fish) justify a strong ruler.

Gandhi: satyagraha (truth-force), ahimsa, swaraj, trusteeship, and decentralised village republics; means must match ends.

Ambedkar: constitutionalism, rule of law, social justice; critique of caste as graded inequality; favoured political and social democracy together.

Nehru: democratic socialism, secularism, scientific temper, non-alignment, and state-led industrialisation through the public sector.

Tilak and Extremists: swaraj as a right, boycott and passive resistance; moderates relied on petitions and constitutional methods (drain theory - Dadabhai Naoroji).

Key movements: Non-Cooperation (1920-22), Civil Disobedience (1930, Dandi March), Quit India (1942); each shifted the Congress toward mass mobilisation.

Constitutional milestones: Government of India Act 1919 (dyarchy), 1935 (provincial autonomy, federation), Cabinet Mission 1946, and Constituent Assembly debates.

Tagore, Iqbal and Savarkar represent cultural-nationalist and alternative visions; compare their positions on nation, religion and state.

Social reform link: Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Jyotiba Phule, Periyar and the temple-entry and self-respect movements fed into rights-based politics.

Realism (Morgenthau): states pursue national interest and power; anarchy and self-help make balance of power central; liberalism stresses institutions and interdependence.

Levels of analysis: individual, state, and systemic (Waltz); constructivism adds norms and identities as determinants of behaviour.

Non-alignment: refusal to join Cold War blocs; Panchsheel (1954) - mutual respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, peaceful coexistence.

Article 51 of the Constitution directs the state to promote international peace and honour treaty obligations; India joined the UN in 1945 as a founding member.

Nuclear doctrine: no first use, credible minimum deterrence, civilian control via the Nuclear Command Authority; India tested in 1974 and 1998.

Groupings: BRICS, SCO, G20 presidency (2023), QUAD, and IBSA; SAARC and BIMSTEC anchor regional diplomacy.

UN principal organs: General Assembly (one state, one vote), Security Council (five permanent members with veto), ICJ, Secretariat, ECOSOC, Trusteeship Council.

Key doctrines: Gujral Doctrine (non-reciprocal concessions to neighbours), Neighbourhood First, Act East, and Indo-Pacific strategy.

State = population + territory + government + sovereignty; sovereignty (internal supremacy, external independence) is the defining element.

Elements of the state are cumulative: absence of defined territory or of sovereign authority means it is not a state in the legal sense.

Sovereignty: internal (supreme law-making authority within territory) and external (freedom from foreign control); Austin located it in a determinate sovereign.

Monism vs pluralism: monists treat sovereignty as indivisible and located in one body; pluralists (Laski, Figgis, Cole) see associations sharing authority.

Theories of state origin: divine right, social contract (Hobbes - security; Locke - consent and trust; Rousseau - general will), and evolutionary/institutional accounts.

Power vs authority vs legitimacy: power is capacity to compel, authority is recognised right to command, legitimacy is belief that rule is justified (Weber: traditional, charismatic, legal-rational).

Forms of government: monarchy, aristocracy, democracy (direct vs representative); Aristotle classified by number of rulers and by whether rule serves common good or rulers' interest.

Liberty is not licence: negative liberty = absence of restraint; positive liberty = capacity for self-realisation; Mill's harm principle limits interference to prevention of harm to others.

Equality: formal (equal treatment before law) vs substantive (equal opportunity, differential treatment to correct disadvantage); justice as fairness (Rawls) uses the difference principle.

Constitutionalism means limited government under a higher law; a constitution that merely organises power without limiting it is not constitutional government.

Constitution types: written/unwritten, rigid/flexible, federal/unitary, and evolved/enacted; the UK is unwritten and flexible, India written and partly rigid.

Rule of law (Dicey): no punishment without a legal breach, equality before the law, and rights arising from ordinary court decisions rather than special declarations.

Separation of powers (Montesquieu): legislature, executive and judiciary exercised by distinct organs with checks; India uses a functional, flexible separation with judicial review.

Checks and balances: veto, judicial review, legislative confirmation, impeachment, and federal division of power restrain each organ.

A constitution typically provides: preamble, fundamental rights, organs of government, distribution of powers, and amendment procedure.

Rigidity is measured by the amendment procedure: special majorities or state ratification make a constitution rigid; ordinary legislative majorities make it flexible.

Political vs legal constitution: the legal text may differ from the working conventions and practices that actually govern institutions.

Bicameralism: upper houses represent units (states, regions) and revise legislation; India's Rajya Sabha has 250 max seats, 12 nominated by the President for special knowledge.

Money bills: introduced only in the lower house on executive recommendation; the upper house can delay but not amend or reject, and must return within 14 days.

Parliamentary vs presidential executive: parliamentary executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature; presidential executive is separately elected with fixed tenure.

Collective responsibility: the council of ministers is jointly answerable to the Lok Sabha; loss of confidence requires resignation.

Judicial review: courts may strike down laws and executive action violating the constitution; India follows procedure established by law plus substantive review (basic structure, arbitrariness).

Judicial independence devices: security of tenure, salary charged to consolidated fund, appointment by collegium/consultation, and contempt power.

Judicial activism vs restraint: activism expands standing (public interest litigation) and remedies; restraint defers to the legislature unless a clear constitutional violation exists.

Legislative procedure: ordinary bill needs passage in both houses and assent; constitutional amendment bills need special majority (and state ratification for federal provisions).

Federal features of India: written constitution, dual polity, division of powers (Union, State, Concurrent lists), bicameralism, and constitutional supremacy.

Unitary features: single citizenship, single integrated judiciary, Governor appointed by the Centre, emergency provisions, and residuary powers with the Union.

Seventh Schedule: Union List (defence, foreign affairs, currency), State List (police, public health, agriculture), Concurrent List (education, forests, criminal law); residuary powers rest with Parliament.

Article 249: Parliament may legislate on a State List subject if the Rajya Sabha so resolves by two-thirds of members present and voting.

Article 356 (President's Rule): on failure of constitutional machinery in a state; since S.R. Bommai (1994) the proclamation is subject to judicial review and floor test.

Finance: Finance Commission (Article 280) recommends devolution of taxes; GST Council (101st Amendment) decides rates; centrally sponsored schemes shape state spending.

Cooperative and competitive federalism: inter-state councils (Article 263), NITI Aayog, and zonal councils are coordination bodies, not constitutional courts.

Inter-state water disputes are adjudicated by tribunals under the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act; the Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction over tribunal awards.

Part III rights: equality (14-18), freedom (19-22), against exploitation (23-24), religion (25-28), cultural and educational (29-30), and constitutional remedies (32).

Article 32 (right to constitutional remedies) is itself a fundamental right; the Supreme Court can issue the five writs - habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, certiorari, quo warranto.

Article 19 freedoms are subject to reasonable restrictions: speech and expression, assembly, association, movement, residence, and profession.

Article 21 has been expanded to include right to life with dignity, privacy (Puttaswamy, 2017), clean environment, and speedy trial.

Fundamental rights are enforceable against the state; Article 13 makes laws inconsistent with Part III void, and the basic structure doctrine protects rights from amendment.

Directive Principles (Part IV) are non-justiciable but fundamental in governance; Article 37 makes them a duty of the state in making laws.

Conflict resolution: rights prevail over directive principles where a law violates Part III, but courts increasingly read DPSPs into Article 21.

Fundamental Duties (Article 51A, added by 42nd Amendment 1976): eleven duties including respecting the Constitution and protecting the environment; non-enforceable by courts.

Article 31C protects laws implementing certain DPSPs, but the protection does not extend to laws destroying the basic structure.

Election Commission of India (Article 324): superintendence, direction and control of elections to Parliament, state legislatures, and offices of President and Vice-President.

First-past-the-post: candidate with the highest votes wins; can win with a minority of votes cast, so seat share diverges from vote share.

Proportional representation: seats allocated in proportion to votes; used in India for Rajya Sabha and President elections via single transferable vote.

Anti-defection (Tenth Schedule): disqualification for voluntarily giving up party membership or voting against party whip; exception for a merger of two-thirds of a legislature party.

Model Code of Conduct: operative from announcement of elections until results; regulates campaigning, expenditure and use of official machinery.

NOTA (2013) allows rejection of all candidates but does not force a re-election; it has no effect on the winner's margin.

Electoral roll and adult suffrage: every citizen 18 or above is entitled to register; Article 326 sets the voting age.

Political party registration under Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951; recognition as state or national party depends on vote-share and seat thresholds.

Election expenditure and candidate funding are regulated by the RP Act; electoral bonds and donation disclosure rules have been litigated before the Supreme Court.

All-India Services (IAS, IPS, IFoS) are recruited by the Union and serve both Union and states; state services are recruited by state public service commissions.

Article 315: Public Service Commissions for the Union and states; members appointed by the President or Governor and removable only for misbehaviour after Supreme Court inquiry.

Civil service values: neutrality, anonymity, merit-based recruitment, and rule-bound action; the minister takes political responsibility, the civil servant gives advice.

New Public Management: results and performance contracting, citizen charters, e-governance, and outsourcing replace purely hierarchical administration.

Good governance indicators: transparency (RTI Act 2005), accountability, participation, and rule of law; Lokpal and Lokayuktas address corruption.

Budget cycle: preparation by finance ministry, presentation, departmental standing committees, appropriation act, and audit by CAG (Article 148).

Administrative tribunals (Article 323A) and CAT hear service matters; their decisions are subject to Supreme Court and High Court judicial review.

Principal-agent problem and moral hazard explain why oversight institutions (CAG, CVC, CBI) exist alongside departmental hierarchies.

Kautilya's Arthashastra: statecraft, saptanga (seven limbs of the state), danda (coercion) and matsyanyaya (law of the fish) justify a strong ruler.

Gandhi: satyagraha (truth-force), ahimsa, swaraj, trusteeship, and decentralised village republics; means must match ends.

Ambedkar: constitutionalism, rule of law, social justice; critique of caste as graded inequality; favoured political and social democracy together.

Nehru: democratic socialism, secularism, scientific temper, non-alignment, and state-led industrialisation through the public sector.

Tilak and Extremists: swaraj as a right, boycott and passive resistance; moderates relied on petitions and constitutional methods (drain theory - Dadabhai Naoroji).

Key movements: Non-Cooperation (1920-22), Civil Disobedience (1930, Dandi March), Quit India (1942); each shifted the Congress toward mass mobilisation.

Constitutional milestones: Government of India Act 1919 (dyarchy), 1935 (provincial autonomy, federation), Cabinet Mission 1946, and Constituent Assembly debates.

Tagore, Iqbal and Savarkar represent cultural-nationalist and alternative visions; compare their positions on nation, religion and state.

Social reform link: Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Jyotiba Phule, Periyar and the temple-entry and self-respect movements fed into rights-based politics.

Realism (Morgenthau): states pursue national interest and power; anarchy and self-help make balance of power central; liberalism stresses institutions and interdependence.

Levels of analysis: individual, state, and systemic (Waltz); constructivism adds norms and identities as determinants of behaviour.

Non-alignment: refusal to join Cold War blocs; Panchsheel (1954) - mutual respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, peaceful coexistence.

Article 51 of the Constitution directs the state to promote international peace and honour treaty obligations; India joined the UN in 1945 as a founding member.

Nuclear doctrine: no first use, credible minimum deterrence, civilian control via the Nuclear Command Authority; India tested in 1974 and 1998.

Groupings: BRICS, SCO, G20 presidency (2023), QUAD, and IBSA; SAARC and BIMSTEC anchor regional diplomacy.

UN principal organs: General Assembly (one state, one vote), Security Council (five permanent members with veto), ICJ, Secretariat, ECOSOC, Trusteeship Council.

Key doctrines: Gujral Doctrine (non-reciprocal concessions to neighbours), Neighbourhood First, Act East, and Indo-Pacific strategy.