AP Intermediate Civics (BIEAP) key terms

The supreme and independent authority of a state to govern itself and make final decisions within its territory, without external interference. It is the defining feature that separates a state from other associations.

Max Weber's idea that a state is the organisation claiming the exclusive right to use physical force within a given territory, backed by law and accepted by the population rather than by private groups.

A theory holding that legitimate political authority arises from an agreement among people to surrender some freedom to a ruler or collective in exchange for order and protection of rights. Associated with Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.

The principle that ultimate political authority rests with the people, who may delegate power to representatives but remain the source of all governmental authority. It underpins democratic constitutions and the preamble of the Indian Constitution.

A doctrine that government power must be limited by a constitution, divided among institutions and exercised according to known rules rather than personal whim. It emphasises restraint on authority, not merely the existence of a written constitution.

The principle that law, not arbitrary personal power, governs society; laws are public, predictable, apply equally to rulers and citizens, and disputes are settled by independent courts. A. V. Dicey popularised the concept in constitutional theory.

The division of governmental authority among legislature, executive and judiciary so that no single body holds all power. Each organ checks the others, reducing the risk of tyranny and protecting liberty.

Institutional arrangements letting each organ of government limit the others, such as judicial review of laws, legislative approval of budgets and executive vetoes. The aim is cooperation with mutual restraint rather than complete isolation of powers.

The power of courts to examine laws and executive actions for conformity with the constitution and to declare them void if inconsistent. In India it flows from Articles 13, 32 and 226 and is a basic feature of the Constitution.

The principle, established in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973), that Parliament cannot amend the Constitution so as to destroy its essential features such as supremacy of the Constitution, secularism, federalism and judicial review.

The introductory statement of the Indian Constitution declaring the source of authority, the nature of the polity and its objectives of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. Courts use it as an aid to interpreting constitutional provisions.

A legislature composed of two houses, such as the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, allowing a second chamber to revise legislation and represent distinct interests. It slows law-making but adds deliberation and scrutiny.

A bill dealing only with taxation, borrowing, the Consolidated Fund or similar financial matters, certified as such by the Speaker and introduced only in the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha may recommend changes but cannot reject or amend it.

A proposed law on general subjects that may be introduced in either house and requires passage by both houses plus presidential assent. Disagreement between houses is resolved by a joint sitting, unlike the procedure for money bills.

The constitutional convention, stated in Article 75 for the Union, that the council of ministers is jointly answerable to the Lok Sabha and must resign if it loses the house's confidence. It binds ministers to public support of government decisions.

A form of government in which the executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature, with a ceremonial head of state and a real head of government commanding a majority. India adopted it at both Union and State levels.

A formal proposal moved in the Lok Sabha expressing lack of confidence in the council of ministers. If passed by a majority, the government must resign, making it a key instrument of legislative control over the executive.

The power of the higher judiciary, chiefly under Article 226, to issue writs for enforcement of fundamental rights and other legal rights. It is broader than Article 32 because it extends to ordinary legal rights as well.

A formal application to a High Court or the Supreme Court seeking a constitutional remedy, usually one of the five writs: habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, certiorari and quo warranto. Article 32 covers the Supreme Court and Article 226 the High Courts.

A system dividing powers between a national government and constituent units, each exercising authority directly over citizens under a written constitution. India's version is often described as quasi-federal because of strong central features.

A description of India's arrangement as federal in structure but with pronounced unitary features, such as a single citizenship, integrated judiciary, emergency provisions and the Union's power to reorganise states or direct them.

The constitutional list dividing legislative subjects into the Union List, State List and Concurrent List. Residuary powers rest with Parliament, and Union subjects prevail over conflicting state laws.

The emergency provision allowing the President, on the Governor's report, to assume functions of a state government when constitutional machinery has failed. Its misuse prompted judicial scrutiny in S. R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994).

The limited areas where a state Governor may act without ministerial advice, such as reserving a bill for the President or recommending President's Rule. Courts have held that the discretionary power is narrow and subject to judicial review.

Justiciable rights guaranteed in Part III of the Indian Constitution, covering equality, freedom, protection against exploitation, religion, culture and education, and constitutional remedies. They can be enforced directly in the Supreme Court under Article 32.

A limitation on a fundamental right that must be provided by law, serve a legitimate public purpose and be proportionate in its effect. Courts test restrictions against these standards rather than treating rights as absolute.

Guidelines in Part IV of the Constitution directing the state towards social and economic democracy, such as living wages, equal pay and a uniform civil code. They are not enforceable in courts but are fundamental in governance.

Obligations listed in Article 51A, added by the Forty-second Amendment in 1976, asking citizens to respect the Constitution, protect sovereignty and the environment and promote harmony. They are non-justiciable but may inform legislation and judicial reasoning.

A constitutional body under Article 324 responsible for superintendence, direction and control of elections to Parliament, state legislatures and the offices of President and Vice-President. It registers parties and enforces the model code of conduct.

A set of guidelines issued by the Election Commission once elections are announced, regulating campaigning, government announcements and spending. It is not a statute but is enforced through the Commission's administrative powers.

An electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes in a constituency wins, even without a majority. India uses it for legislative elections, which tends to favour larger parties and produce disproportional seat shares.

An electoral method allocating seats in proportion to the share of votes each party receives, often through party lists or multi-member constituencies. India uses it for the Rajya Sabha and presidential elections via single transferable vote.

The Tenth Schedule, inserted in 1985, disqualifies legislators who voluntarily give up party membership or vote against a party whip. It aims to curb floor-crossing but has been criticised for weakening legislative independence.

The expectation that permanent officials serve whichever government is in power, giving impartial advice and implementing policy without partisan bias. It is balanced in practice by the requirement to carry out lawful ministerial direction.

A practice of filling government posts with political supporters as a reward, regardless of merit. India's constitutional scheme rejects it by requiring recruitment through independent public service commissions and open competition.

An independent constitutional body under Articles 315 to 323 that conducts recruitment examinations and advises on appointments, promotions and disciplinary matters for civil services. Its independence is protected by fixed tenure and removal safeguards.

The elected head of a gram panchayat, the village-level unit of local self-government created by the Seventy-third Constitutional Amendment. The office is central to participatory planning and implementation of rural development schemes.

The system of rural local self-government with village, intermediate and district tiers, given constitutional status by the Seventy-third Amendment in 1992. It includes mandatory elections, reservations for women and Scheduled Castes and State Finance Commission grants.

Gandhi's method of non-violent resistance through truth-force, involving civil disobedience, fasting, boycotts and peaceful defiance of unjust laws. It sought to convert opponents through moral pressure rather than coerce them by force.

Self-rule, used in the national movement to mean both political independence and individual self-mastery through self-discipline. Gandhi distinguished it from mere transfer of power to Indian elites.

The 1920-22 campaign launched by Gandhi and the Congress, urging Indians to withdraw cooperation from British institutions by boycotting schools, courts, councils and foreign goods. It was suspended after the Chauri Chaura violence in 1922.

A foreign policy stance of refusing to join either Cold War bloc while pursuing independent judgment, anti-colonial solidarity and development cooperation. India was a founding voice through Nehru and the 1961 Belgrade summit.

The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence signed by India and China in 1954, covering mutual respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality and peaceful settlement of disputes. They became a template for India's bilateral relations.

The aim of preserving freedom of decision-making in foreign and defence policy, engaging multiple partners without becoming a subordinate ally of any single power. It is often presented as the contemporary successor to non-alignment.