Bihar Intermediate Sociology (BSEB) key terms

The process by which a lower caste adopts the rituals, diet, dress and deities of a higher caste in order to raise its social status, usually without gaining economic or political power.

The adoption of Western ideas, technology, institutions and lifestyles in Indian society, especially through British colonial rule and modern education, science and urban living.

The shift toward rational, secular, achievement-based and technologically advanced ways of living, involving changes in education, law, family life and occupational choice.

A hereditary, endogamous and hierarchically ranked social group in India, traditionally linked to occupation and ritual purity, and historically reinforced by rules of commensality and marriage.

The classical fourfold textual division of Hindu society into Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, used as an ideal model rather than an exact description of local groups.

A local, birth-based endogamous group with its own customs, occupation and council, forming the actual unit of caste life in villages, distinct from the broad textual varna order.

The practice of treating certain caste groups as ritually polluted and excluding them from temples, wells, housing and social contact; it is abolished under Article 17 of the Constitution.

A caste that, in a particular village or region, exercises decisive economic and political power through landownership and numbers, even if it is not the highest in ritual rank.

A traditional council of elders of a caste or village that settles disputes, enforces marriage rules and imposes sanctions such as fines, boycotts or excommunication on members.

The arrangement of people into ranked layers that differ in wealth, power and prestige, with unequal access to valued resources, found in caste, class and gender systems.

A social group sharing a similar position in the economy, based on income, occupation, education and ownership, whose membership is relatively open and achieved rather than strictly hereditary.

Movement of individuals or groups between social positions, either upward or downward, or between generations, measured through occupation, income, education and status.

The rule that a person must marry within a specified group such as a caste, clan or religious community; it is the strongest feature sustaining caste boundaries in India.

The rule that a person must marry outside a specified group, such as one's own clan, gotra or village, so as to avoid marriage with close kin.

The network of relationships created by descent, marriage and adoption, which defines rights, duties and obligations among relatives and organises family and inheritance in society.

A group of people who trace descent from a common ancestor through a known genealogical line, either through males (patrilineal) or females (matrilineal).

A clan category among Hindus, based on descent from a legendary sage, within which marriage is traditionally prohibited and which regulates exogamy in many communities.

A household consisting of a married couple and their unmarried children, typically independent of grandparents, common in urban and industrial settings.

A household in which two or more generations of related couples live together, sharing residence, property, kitchen and authority under a senior member.

A system of male dominance in which men hold primary authority over property, decision-making and family lineage, and women face subordinate status and restricted opportunities.

Money, goods or property given by the bride's family to the groom or his family at marriage; its demand and payment are prohibited under the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961.

The lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, language and roles of their society, beginning in the family and continuing through school, peers and media.

The means by which a society persuades or compels its members to conform to accepted norms, ranging from informal sanctions like praise and ridicule to formal law and punishment.

A condition of normlessness in which shared standards of behaviour weaken, leaving individuals without clear guidance and increasing deviance and disorder in society.

The total way of life of a society, including knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and habits acquired by people as members of a community.

The tendency to judge other cultures by the standards of one's own and to regard one's own way of life as superior, often leading to prejudice against outsiders.

The principle that a culture should be understood in terms of its own values and context rather than judged by the standards of another culture.

The principle that the state treats all religions equally and does not establish an official religion; in India it also allows the state to intervene to reform religion.

The use of religious identity to mobilise political support and to foster hostility between religious communities, treating members of another community as rivals or enemies.

Loyalty to and identification with a particular region or linguistic area, which may take the form of demands for autonomy, separate statehood or preference for local people.

The process of building a shared sense of nationhood among diverse linguistic, religious, regional and caste groups while respecting their distinct identities.

The idea that Indian society holds together as one nation despite wide differences in language, religion, caste, region and custom, through shared institutions and cultural exchange.

A condition widely regarded as harmful to society, such as poverty, unemployment, dowry, child labour or alcoholism, that calls for collective action and reform.

Organised public and voluntary efforts, including laws, schemes and services, aimed at meeting the basic needs of weaker sections and improving their living conditions.

Policies such as reservation in education, employment and legislatures that give preferential treatment to historically disadvantaged groups to correct past and present inequalities.

A research method in which the investigator lives among the people studied and takes part in their daily activities while recording observations, as used in classic community studies.

The practice of collecting data by going to the place where people live and directly observing and questioning them, central to anthropological and sociological study in India.

A method of gathering information through direct conversation with respondents, either structured with fixed questions or unstructured and open-ended to explore experiences.

A written set of questions used to collect standardised information from many respondents, suitable for large samples but limited in depth and dependent on literacy.

The process of selecting a smaller group from a larger population so that findings can be generalised, using methods such as random, stratified or purposive selection.

Caste groups officially listed in the Constitution as historically subjected to untouchability, entitled to reservation and protective laws under Articles 15, 17 and 46.