Haryana CET Group D key terms

A comparison of two quantities of the same kind, written as a:b, showing how many times one value contains the other. Ratios have no units and can be scaled up or down by multiplying both parts by the same number.

An equation stating that two ratios are equal, such as a:b = c:d. In a true proportion the product of the outer terms (extremes) equals the product of the inner terms (means).

A technique that first finds the value of one unit by division, then multiplies by the required number of units. Useful for work, speed, and price problems where quantities change in direct or inverse relation.

A relationship where two quantities increase or decrease together at a constant rate, so their ratio stays fixed. Doubling one quantity doubles the other, as with price and number of items bought.

A relationship where one quantity rises as the other falls, keeping their product constant. More workers finishing a job in fewer days is the standard example used in exams.

A fraction expressed with denominator 100, denoted by the % sign. To convert a fraction to a percentage, multiply by 100; to convert a percentage to a decimal, divide by 100.

Commercial arithmetic comparing cost price with selling price. Profit equals selling price minus cost price when positive; loss occurs when selling price is lower. Percentage profit is usually calculated on cost price.

The price at which an article is bought or produced, abbreviated CP. It is the base figure against which profit percentage or loss percentage is normally computed in exam questions.

The price at which an article is actually sold, abbreviated SP. Comparing it with the cost price determines whether the transaction produced profit or loss and by what percentage.

A reduction given on the marked price of an article. Successive discounts are not additive; each is applied to the price remaining after the previous discount, so the combined effect is smaller than the sum.

Interest calculated only on the original principal for the whole period, using the formula SI = P x R x T / 100. It does not earn interest on previously accumulated interest.

Interest calculated on the principal plus interest already earned, so the amount grows faster each period. The formula is A = P(1 + R/100)^T for annual compounding; it exceeds simple interest for periods longer than one year.

The sum of a set of values divided by how many values there are, also called the arithmetic mean. If every value increases by the same amount, the average rises by that amount.

Problems where the rate of work is treated as the reciprocal of the time taken. If a person finishes a job in n days, one day's work is 1/n, and rates of different workers are added together.

The relation distance = speed x time, with speed in km/h or m/s. To convert km/h to m/s multiply by 5/18; relative speed of two moving bodies is added when opposite and subtracted when same direction.

Lowest Common Multiple: the smallest number that is a multiple of each given number. Found by taking the highest power of every prime factor appearing in the numbers; used to synchronise repeating events.

Highest Common Factor, also called GCD: the largest number dividing each of the given numbers exactly. For two numbers, HCF multiplied by LCM equals the product of the two numbers.

A whole number greater than 1 whose only positive divisors are 1 and itself, such as 2, 3, 5, 7 and 11. The number 2 is the only even prime; 1 is neither prime nor composite.

A reasoning question presenting two or more statements treated as true, from which conclusions must be judged as definitely valid, possibly valid, or invalid, using set relationships rather than real-world knowledge.

A diagram of overlapping circles used to represent sets and their relationships. In syllogism questions it helps show whether one category is fully inside, partly overlapping, or entirely separate from another.

Drawing a guaranteed conclusion from premises accepted as true, moving from general rules to specific cases. If the premises are true and the form is valid, the conclusion must be true.

A reasoning item stating a relationship between two items and asking for a pair with the same relationship, such as part-to-whole, cause-to-effect, or worker-to-tool.

A question giving a group of items in which all but one share a common property, and the candidate must identify the exception. The shared rule must hold for every other member.

Grouping items by a common characteristic drawn from meaning, number properties, or structure. Often the reverse of odd-one-out, where a candidate selects the item that belongs with a given set.

A puzzle where a word or number is converted into a code by a fixed rule, and the candidate must apply or reverse that rule. Rules may involve letter shifts, reversal, or position values.

A sequence based on the position of letters in the English alphabet, where each term moves by a fixed or patterned gap. Knowing positions 1 to 26 and the EJOTY grouping speeds up solving.

A sequence of numbers following a hidden rule such as constant difference, multiplication, squares or alternating operations, where the candidate must find the next term or the wrong term.

Questions describing family links in words or symbols, requiring the candidate to work out how two named persons are related. Drawing a small family tree avoids confusion over gender and generation.

Problems tracking a person's path through turns of north, south, east and west, asking for final direction or shortest distance. A rough sketch and Pythagoras for right-angled turns usually solve them.

A puzzle placing people around a circle or in a row using clues about who sits beside, opposite, or to the left of whom. Fixing one person first and testing both facing directions is the standard method.

A verbal reasoning item where a short statement is followed by proposed assumptions, and the candidate decides which assumptions are implicit, that is, taken for granted by the speaker.

A word having the same or nearly the same meaning as another word in a given context. Exam items ask the candidate to pick the closest equivalent from the options offered.

A word opposite in meaning to another word. Candidates should check the part of speech and the sense in which the word is used before choosing the opposite from the options.

One of two or more words pronounced alike but spelt differently and having different meanings, such as 'principle' and 'principal' or 'weather' and 'whether'. Confusing them is a common error in fill-in-the-blank items.

A fixed expression whose meaning cannot be worked out from its individual words, such as 'to let the cat out of the bag' meaning to reveal a secret. Idioms are tested by choosing the correct meaning.

A verb combined with a preposition or adverb that together carry a new meaning, such as 'give up' or 'put off'. The particle cannot be understood literally and often changes the verb completely.

Replacing a phrase with a single precise word, for example 'a person who speaks many languages' becomes 'polyglot'. These items test vocabulary range and are common in general English sections.

Two ways of presenting the same action: active voice makes the doer the subject, passive voice makes the receiver the subject with a form of 'be' plus past participle. Only transitive verbs can be made passive.

Reporting someone's words either exactly, inside quotation marks, or indirectly as a reported clause. Indirect speech usually shifts tense back one step and changes pronouns and time words.

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number and person, so a singular subject takes a singular verb. Phrases between subject and verb do not change the agreement.

The determiners 'a', 'an' and 'the'. 'A' and 'an' are indefinite and depend on the sound that follows, while 'the' is definite and points to a specific or already mentioned noun.

A word showing the relation of a noun or pronoun to another element in the sentence, covering place, time, direction or manner, such as 'in', 'on', 'at', 'between' and 'since'.

Eleven duties listed in Article 51A of the Indian Constitution, added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976 on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee. They apply to citizens and are not directly enforceable by courts.

Rights guaranteed in Part III of the Indian Constitution, Articles 12 to 35, covering equality, freedom, protection against exploitation, religion, culture and education, and constitutional remedies. They are enforceable through writs.

Guidelines in Part IV, Articles 36 to 51, that the State should follow when making policy, aimed at social and economic democracy. They are not enforceable in courts but are fundamental in governance.

The opening statement of the Indian Constitution declaring the source of authority as the people and listing the ideals of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. It has been held to be part of the Constitution.

The three-tier system of local self-government in rural India, established by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment of 1992, operating at village, block and district levels with reserved seats for women and marginalised groups.

A seasonal reversal of wind direction bringing heavy rainfall to the Indian subcontinent, driven by differential heating of land and sea. The south-west monsoon from June to September supplies most of India's annual rain.

The latitude about 23.5 degrees north of the equator, which passes through eight Indian states. It marks the northern limit of the sun's apparent overhead passage and divides India into tropical and subtropical zones.

The young fold mountain range along India's northern border, formed by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates. It blocks cold Central Asian winds, forces the monsoon to shed rain, and feeds major rivers.

The process by which green plants use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to make glucose and release oxygen, with chlorophyll as the pigment and chloroplasts as the site. It is the base of most food chains.

The sequence in which energy passes from producers such as plants to herbivores and then to carnivores. Each step is a trophic level, and only a fraction of energy transfers upward.

An organic compound needed in small amounts for normal body function that the body cannot make enough of. Vitamins are grouped as fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble (B group and C).

A classification of blood by antigens on red cells, mainly the ABO and Rh systems. O negative is called the universal donor and AB positive the universal recipient in transfusion matching.

The removal of the fertile top layer of soil by wind or running water, worsened by deforestation and overgrazing. Contour ploughing, terracing and shelter belts are common conservation measures.

System software that manages hardware, memory, files and processes and provides a platform for applications. Common examples are Windows, Linux, macOS and Android; it acts as an interface between user and machine.

Random Access Memory is the volatile working memory of a computer, holding data and programs currently in use. Its contents are lost when power is removed, unlike ROM or secondary storage.

Uniform Resource Locator, the address that identifies the location of a resource on the internet, including the protocol, domain name and path, such as https://example.com/page.