IB JIO Grade-II Technical key terms

Basic freedoms guaranteed to citizens by Part III of the Indian Constitution, enforceable through writ petitions in the Supreme Court or High Courts. They cover equality, speech, religion, life and personal liberty, and constitutional remedies.

Guidelines in Part IV of the Indian Constitution directing the state toward social and economic welfare goals. They are not directly enforceable in courts but inform legislation and policy making.

A formal application asking a constitutional court to issue a writ such as habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, certiorari or quo warranto to protect legal or fundamental rights.

The interest rate at which the Reserve Bank of India lends short-term funds to commercial banks against government securities. Raising it usually tightens liquidity and curbs inflation.

Actions by a central bank to manage money supply, credit availability and interest rates in order to control inflation and support growth. In India it is set by the Monetary Policy Committee.

The excess of total government expenditure over total receipts excluding borrowings, expressed as a percentage of GDP. It indicates how much the government must borrow to fund its spending.

A form of logical reasoning with two or more premises leading to a conclusion, as in 'All A are B; all B are C; therefore all A are C'. Questions test whether a conclusion necessarily follows.

A technique for solving syllogism and set-based reasoning questions by drawing overlapping circles representing categories, making valid and invalid conclusions easy to visualise.

A reasoning problem that describes family relationships in coded or indirect language and asks the candidate to determine how two named persons are related.

A reasoning topic where words or numbers are transformed by a hidden rule, such as letter shifts or reversals, and the candidate must apply the same rule to a new item.

A sequence of numbers following a pattern of differences, ratios, squares or alternating operations. The task is to identify the rule and supply the missing or next term.

A puzzle requiring candidates to place people around a circle or in a row using clues about relative positions, facing directions and adjacency. Systematic tabulation is the usual solving method.

Interest computed only on the original principal for the whole period, using the formula SI = P x R x T / 100, where P is principal, R the annual rate and T the time in years.

Interest calculated on both the principal and previously accumulated interest, so the amount grows geometrically. The formula is A = P(1 + R/100)^T for annual compounding.

A quantitative topic relating the three quantities by distance = speed x time, including problems on trains, boats and streams, and relative speed of two moving bodies.

Counting techniques for arrangements where order matters (permutations) and selections where order does not matter (combinations), using factorials and the nCr and nPr formulas.

The numerical measure of how likely an event is, computed as favourable outcomes divided by total equally likely outcomes, with values between zero and one.

Two ways of expressing the same idea: active voice makes the doer the subject, while passive voice makes the receiver the subject and uses a form of 'be' with the past participle.

Two ways of reporting speech: direct speech quotes the exact words in quotation marks, while indirect speech paraphrases them and shifts tense, pronouns and time expressions.

A fixed expression whose meaning cannot be derived from its individual words, such as 'to bite the bullet' meaning to face a difficult situation bravely. Idioms are tested in comprehension sections.

A vocabulary exercise asking for a single word that replaces a descriptive phrase, for example 'altruist' for a person who selflessly helps others.

The net force on a body equals the rate of change of its momentum, reducing to F = ma when mass is constant. It links force, mass and acceleration in a single vector equation.

The net work done on an object equals the change in its kinetic energy. It offers an alternative to force analysis when speeds and displacements are known.

For a metallic conductor at constant temperature, the current through it is directly proportional to the potential difference across it, giving V = IR where R is resistance in ohms.

Two circuit rules: the junction rule states that total current entering a node equals total current leaving it, and the loop rule states that voltages around any closed loop sum to zero.

An intrinsic property of a material measuring how strongly it opposes current flow, expressed in ohm-metres. It depends on material and temperature but not on the conductor's dimensions.

Complete reflection of light back into a denser medium when it strikes a boundary with a rarer medium at an angle exceeding the critical angle. It underlies optical fibres and certain prisms.

The ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to its speed in a medium, or equivalently the ratio of sines of the angles of incidence and refraction. It is dimensionless and always at least one.

Emission of electrons from a metal surface when light of sufficient frequency strikes it. It demonstrates the particle nature of light and is explained by Einstein's photon equation.

The wavelength associated with a moving particle, equal to Planck's constant divided by its momentum. It becomes significant only for very small masses such as electrons.

If a function is continuous on a closed interval, differentiable on the open interval, and takes equal values at both endpoints, then its derivative vanishes at some interior point.

For a function continuous on a closed interval and differentiable inside it, there exists an interior point where the instantaneous rate of change equals the average rate over the interval.

The square root of the variance, measuring how far values typically lie from the mean in the same units as the data. A small value indicates tightly clustered observations.

The ratio of standard deviation to mean, often expressed as a percentage. It compares variability between data sets with different units or very different averages.

System software that manages hardware resources, schedules processes, handles memory and file systems, and provides services to application programs through a user interface and system calls.

A technique where the operating system uses disk space to extend apparent RAM, allowing programs larger than physical memory to run through paging and address translation.

A seven-layer conceptual framework for network communication: physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation and application. Each layer performs distinct functions and serves the layer above.

The practical four-layer model underlying the internet, comprising network access, internet, transport and application layers, with TCP providing reliable delivery and IP providing addressing and routing.

A 32-bit value that separates the network portion of an IPv4 address from the host portion, allowing a large network to be divided into smaller logical subnets.

A social-engineering attack in which fraudulent emails, messages or websites impersonate a trusted entity to trick users into revealing passwords, card details or other sensitive information.

A login control requiring two independent proofs of identity, typically a password plus a one-time code from an app or hardware token, so a stolen password alone is insufficient.

The process of varying a carrier wave's amplitude, frequency or phase in accordance with a message signal so it can be transmitted efficiently over a chosen medium.

For distortion-free sampling, the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency present in the signal. It sets the minimum rate for faithful analogue-to-digital conversion.