Kerala Plus Two Home Science (DHSE) cheat sheet

Developmental stages and approximate ages: infancy (0-2), early childhood (2-6), middle childhood (6-12), adolescence (12-19), early adulthood (20-40), middle adulthood (40-60), late adulthood (60+).

Puberty in girls typically begins 8-13 years with menarche about 2-2.5 years after breast budding; in boys 9-14 years with voice change and growth spurt later than girls.

Erikson's eight psychosocial stages: trust vs mistrust (infancy), autonomy vs shame (2-3), initiative vs guilt (4-5), industry vs inferiority (6-11), identity vs role confusion (adolescence), intimacy vs isolation (young adult), generativity vs stagnation (middle), integrity vs despair (old age).

Piaget's stages: sensorimotor (0-2, object permanence), preoperational (2-7, egocentrism, symbolic play), concrete operational (7-11, conservation, classification), formal operational (11+, abstract and hypothetical reasoning).

Kohlberg's moral levels: preconventional (punishment/obedience and self-interest), conventional (good-boy and law-and-order), postconventional (social contract and universal ethical principles).

Family types: nuclear (parents and children), joint/extended (multiple generations), single-parent, blended, and childless; functions are reproduction, socialization, economic support, emotional security and care of dependents.

Parenting styles: authoritative (high warmth, high control, best outcomes), authoritarian (low warmth, high control), permissive (high warmth, low control), neglectful (low both).

Bowlby's attachment theory: secure attachment forms through consistent responsive caregiving in the first years; separation anxiety peaks around 8-18 months; Ainsworth's Strange Situation classifies secure, avoidant, ambivalent and disorganized attachment.

Maillard browning occurs between reducing sugars and amino groups of proteins at about 140-165 degrees C, producing brown pigments and flavour; it is accelerated in alkaline media and inhibited by acid.

Caramelization is sugar pyrolysis at 160-180 degrees C without protein; sucrose first hydrolyses to glucose and fructose, giving progressively darker and more bitter products.

Gelatinization of starch: granules absorb water and swell irreversibly at 60-70 degrees C (potato lower, about 58-65; wheat about 65-70); on cooling, amylose retrogrades and sets a gel.

Emulsions: oil-in-water (milk, mayonnaise) needs an emulsifier with hydrophilic and lipophilic ends; egg yolk lecithin stabilizes mayonnaise; emulsions break on freezing, overheating or adding electrolyte.

Proteins denature on heating, acid, alcohol or mechanical action; coagulation follows, as in curdling of milk by lemon juice or rennet; moist heat gelatinizes collagen to gelatin in meat cookery.

Enzymatic browning in fruits and vegetables is caused by polyphenol oxidase acting on phenols in the presence of oxygen; inhibited by heat blanching, acid (pH below 4), ascorbic acid, or exclusion of oxygen.

Food preservation principles: high temperature (sterilization above 100 degrees C, pasteurization 63 degrees C for 30 min or 72 degrees C for 15 s), low temperature (chilling 0-7, freezing -18), dehydration, high sugar or salt (osmotic), acid, and irradiation.

Leavening agents: baking powder (sodium bicarbonate plus acid salt) releases CO2 in batter and on heating; yeast fermentation produces CO2 and ethanol; steam and air are physical leaveners in choux and puff pastry.

Colloidal systems in foods: sol (raw egg white), gel (jelly), foam (whipped cream), emulsion (milk); a gel sets when a hydrocolloid network traps water and weeps (syneresis) on syneresis or over-stirring.

Energy values: carbohydrate and protein 4 kcal/g, fat 9 kcal/g, alcohol 7 kcal/g; 1 kcal equals 4.184 kJ.

Macronutrient Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range: carbohydrate 45-65 percent, fat 20-35 percent, protein 10-35 percent of energy for adults.

Protein requirement of a healthy adult is 0.8-1.0 g per kg body weight per day; pregnancy adds about 15-25 g/day in the second and third trimesters; children need 1.0-1.5 g/kg.

Balanced diet: cereals 300-400 g, pulses 60-90 g, milk 300 ml, vegetables 300-400 g, fruits 100-200 g, oils and fats 20-30 g, sugar less than 30 g per day for an adult on about 2000 kcal.

Deficiency diseases: vitamin A (night blindness, xerophthalmia), vitamin D (rickets in children, osteomalacia in adults), thiamine B1 (beriberi), riboflavin B2 (angular stomatitis), niacin B3 (pellagra with 3 Ds: dermatitis, diarrhoea, dementia), vitamin C (scurvy), iron (microcytic anaemia), iodine (goitre, cretinism).

Iron absorption is enhanced by vitamin C and animal protein and inhibited by phytates, tannins in tea, calcium and fibre; haem iron from meat is better absorbed than non-haem iron.

Body mass index equals weight in kg divided by height in metres squared; underweight below 18.5, normal 18.5-24.9, overweight 25-29.9, obese 30 and above.

Therapeutic diets: diabetes uses high fibre, low simple sugar and controlled carbohydrate; hypertension uses DASH pattern with sodium under 1500-2300 mg/day; renal disease restricts protein, sodium, potassium and phosphorus; celiac disease excludes wheat, barley and rye gluten.

Food safety: danger zone 5-60 degrees C; keep hot foods above 60 and cold foods below 5; reheat leftovers to 74 degrees C; avoid cross-contamination by separate boards for raw meat and ready-to-eat foods.

Natural fibres: cotton (cellulose, absorbent, strong when wet, damaged by acid), wool (protein, warm, weak when wet, damaged by alkali and bleach), silk (protein filament, lustrous, weak when wet), linen (cellulose, strong, stiff, low elasticity).

Regenerated fibres: viscose rayon (regenerated cellulose, weak when wet), acetate (modified cellulose, thermoplastic, low absorbency), modal and lyocell.

Synthetic fibres: polyester (strong, quick drying, oleophilic, low absorbency), nylon (very strong, elastic, poor heat resistance), acrylic (wool-like, warm), spandex (high stretch).

Yarn counts: cotton count is number of 840-yard hanks per pound (higher number = finer yarn); denier is weight in grams of 9000 m (higher denier = coarser); tex is grams per 1000 m.

Fabric structure: plain weave (maximum interlacing, strong, firm), twill weave (diagonal rib, more drape, used in denim), satin weave (long floats, lustrous, snag-prone); knits stretch because of loop structure.

Finishing operations: singeing, desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing (cotton: increases lustre, strength, dye uptake), calendering, and sanforizing (shrinkage control).

Dyeing: direct dyes for cellulose, acid dyes for wool and silk, vat dyes for cotton denim (very fast), disperse dyes for polyester (requires high temperature or carrier); mordants fix natural dyes.

Care labelling: washing temperature symbols, triangle for bleaching (crossed = do not bleach), square with circle for tumble drying, iron dots for temperature (one dot 110, two 150, three 200 degrees C), circle for dry cleaning.

Flammability: cellulose fibres burn readily with afterglow; wool and silk self-extinguish; synthetics melt and drip; blends of cotton and polyester are the most hazardous.

Body measurements for drafting: bust/chest, waist, hip, shoulder width, back length, sleeve length, inseam; ease is added to body measurements (about 2.5 cm at bust for a fitted bodice, more for loose garments).

Pattern symbols: grain line arrow (parallel to selvedge), fold line, notches for matching, dart markings, centre front line, seam allowance (usually 1.5 cm, 2.5 cm at hems).

Drafting sequence for a bodice: draw centre back and front lines, mark bust and waist lines, square out, mark neck width and shoulder slope, plot armhole curve, add darts and ease.

Principles of design: balance (symmetrical or asymmetrical), rhythm (repetition, gradation, radiation), emphasis, proportion, harmony and unity.

Figure types and silhouette: hourglass, pear (triangle), apple (inverted triangle), rectangle; vertical lines create height, horizontal lines create width, dark colours recede and light colours advance.

Colour schemes: monochromatic, analogous (adjacent on colour wheel), complementary (opposite), split-complementary, triadic; value is lightness, intensity is saturation.

Stains and their removal: grease with absorbent and solvent, tea and coffee with cold water and borax, blood with cold water only (hot sets it), ink with milk or alcohol, rust with oxalic acid or lemon and salt.

Fashion cycle: introduction, rise, peak, decline, obsolescence; theories of fashion adoption are trickle-down, trickle-up (bottom-up) and trickle-across.

Sustainable clothing: natural fibres, organic cotton, natural dyes, upcycling, repair and reuse, reduced overproduction; fast fashion increases textile waste and microfibre pollution.

Management process: planning, organizing, implementing (controlling), evaluating; decision-making and communication run through all steps.

Resources are human (time, energy, knowledge, skills, attitudes) and non-human (money, materials, goods, community facilities); management aims to maximize satisfaction from limited resources.

Time management tools: job analysis, job simplification, job standardization, job delegation, peak-load planning, and the work curve (warming up, peak, fatigue, decline).

Mundel's classification of motives: security, recognition, response, new experience; Maslow's hierarchy: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization.

Work simplification principles: eliminate unnecessary motions, combine operations, rearrange sequence, simplify; use of labour-saving tools and ergonomically correct heights reduce fatigue.

Budget types: balanced, surplus, deficit; a family budget records fixed, flexible and discretionary expenditure; the envelope or zero-based method allocates every rupee to a purpose.

Energy management: heavy tasks at peak energy hours, sit-down tasks for fatigue periods, alternate light and heavy work, rest pauses; fatigue is both physiological and psychological.

Standard of living is measured by goods and services consumed; quality of life adds health, education, leisure and environment; GNP and HDI are macro indicators, not family-level ones.

Ergonomics: kitchen work triangle between sink, stove and refrigerator should total 3.6-6.6 m; counter height about 85 cm and work surface depth 60 cm suit most adults.

Consumer rights under Indian law: right to safety, information, choice, be heard, seek redressal, and consumer education; the Consumer Protection Act 2019 adds e-commerce and product liability provisions.

Redressal machinery under the Consumer Protection Act 2019: District Commission up to 50 lakh rupees, State Commission 50 lakh to 2 crore, National Commission above 2 crore (pecuniary jurisdiction as notified).

Standardization marks: ISI (BIS) for industrial goods, Agmark for agricultural products, FPO for processed fruit products, Hallmark for gold jewellery, and FSSAI licence for food businesses.

Labelling requirements: name and address of manufacturer, net quantity, ingredients, nutritional information, date of manufacture and best before, batch number, FSSAI logo and licence number, and veg/non-veg symbol.

Consumer responsibilities: check labels and expiry, ask for bills, compare prices and unit prices, read warranties, avoid impulse buying, and complain with evidence.

Advertising regulation: misleading advertisements are an unfair trade practice; the Consumer Protection Act 2019 provides for penalties and the CCPA can order discontinuation and corrective advertising.

Family resource allocation trade-offs: opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative forgone; marginal utility diminishes with additional units consumed.

Savings and credit: recurring deposit, fixed deposit, public provident fund, chit funds and self-help groups; compare interest rate, compounding, lock-in period and risk before choosing.

Financial inclusion and insurance: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana for bank accounts, Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana and Atal Pension Yojana for security; life insurance protects dependents, not the insured.

Housing functions: shelter, protection, privacy, space for family activities, and a base for social and economic life; housing adequacy indicators include space, ventilation, water, sanitation and tenure.

Site selection: well-drained soil, high water table avoided, proximity to work, school, transport and health facilities, away from noise, industrial smoke and flood lines.

Orientation for tropical climate: long axis east-west to reduce heat gain, kitchens to the east for morning sun, bedrooms to the south-west in hot climates, verandahs on the west to shade afternoon sun.

Ventilation: cross ventilation with inlet and outlet openings on opposite walls; the outlet should be larger than or equal to the inlet and placed high for hot air escape; air changes per hour indicate ventilation adequacy.

Principles of interior design: proportion, scale, balance, rhythm, emphasis, harmony; colour schemes warm (red, orange, yellow) advance, cool (blue, green, violet) recede.

Lighting: general, task and accent; incandescent about 10-15 lumens per watt, CFL 50-70, LED 80-100; task lighting needs higher illuminance than ambient.

Building materials: cement, sand and aggregate ratio for mortar 1:4 to 1:6 and concrete M20 as 1:1.5:3; bamboo, laterite and stabilized mud blocks are low-energy alternatives.

Water and waste: rainwater harvesting, greywater reuse for gardening, soak pits, composting of kitchen waste, biogas from cattle dung; segregation at source into biodegradable and non-biodegradable.

Indoor air quality: avoid asbestos, lead paint and formaldehyde-emitting boards; ensure exhaust in kitchens; indoor pollutants can exceed outdoor levels in poorly ventilated homes.

Community development is a process of collective action by people to improve living conditions, with participation, self-reliance and democratic decision-making as core values.

Rural development programmes: MGNREGA guarantees 100 days of unskilled wage employment per rural household per year; National Rural Livelihoods Mission organizes self-help groups.

Self-help group model: 10-20 members, weekly savings, internal lending, bookkeeping, and bank linkage after about six months of regular savings; SHGs empower women economically.

Panchayati Raj: three tiers (gram panchayat, panchayat samiti, zilla parishad); the 73rd Amendment (1992) gave constitutional status and reserved seats for women and Scheduled Castes and Tribes.

Kudumbashree in Kerala is a women-centred community network of neighbourhood groups under local government, linked to micro-enterprise, health and literacy programmes.

Health programmes: National Health Mission, pulse polio and routine immunization, Integrated Child Development Services for children under six, pregnant and lactating women; ASHA and anganwadi workers are frontline links.

Literacy and extension: Kerala's Total Literacy Campaign (1989 onwards) used volunteer instructors and environment-building; the Sakshar Bharat model targets adult non-literates.

Social problems addressed by community action: alcoholism, dowry, domestic violence, child labour, open defecation, and plastic pollution; legislation supports but awareness and participation sustain change.

Extension teaching methods: individual (home visit, personal letter), group (demonstration, method demonstration, lecture, field trip), and mass (radio, television, exhibition, poster, social media); choose the method by audience size and objective.

Extension education is informal, out-of-school education for adults and youth that brings research-based knowledge to people and takes problems back to research; it is voluntary and democratic.

Extension teaching steps: identify needs, set objectives, plan and select methods and aids, implement, evaluate and follow up.

Characteristics of a good extension worker: knowledge of subject and local culture, empathy, communication skill, credibility, and ability to work with local leaders and groups.

Communication elements: sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, noise; effective communication uses familiar language, visual aids, repetition and two-way interaction.

Adoption process: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, adoption; innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards are the adopter categories.

Health definition (WHO): a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Communicable disease control: agent, host and environment triad; control by notification, isolation, disinfection, vector control, immunization and health education; Kerala's strong public health system relies on surveillance and primary care.

Non-communicable disease risk factors: tobacco, alcohol, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, obesity, raised blood pressure and glucose; prevention is through lifestyle change and screening.

First aid essentials: ABC (airway, breathing, circulation), control bleeding by pressure, do not move a suspected spinal injury, cool burns with running water for 20 minutes, ORS for dehydration, and snakebite victims should be immobilised and taken to hospital without cutting or sucking the wound.

Recipe standardization: measure ingredients by weight for accuracy, record method and yield, repeat at least twice, and calculate cost per portion.

Sensory evaluation: use a score card with attributes such as appearance, colour, texture, flavour and overall acceptability on a 9-point hedonic scale; panelists should not be influenced by labels.

Standard food preparation techniques: cream fat and sugar for aeration, fold egg white foam gently, knead dough until gluten develops, and use a double boiler for chocolate and custard to avoid scorching.

Portion and cost calculation: edible portion equals as-purchased quantity multiplied by (100 minus trim and cooking loss percent) divided by 100; food cost percent equals food cost divided by selling price times 100.

Gardening and nursery practice: seedbed preparation, sowing depth about two to three times seed diameter, transplanting with root ball intact, compost from kitchen waste, and pest control with neem extract.

Laundry practical: sort by colour and fabric, soak cottons in warm water, wash woollens in lukewarm water with mild soap without rubbing, dry in shade, iron on the reverse with correct temperature.

Stitching practical: take measurements, draft pattern, place pattern on grain, cut with pinking or zigzag finishing, tack, stitch with correct seam allowance, press and finish.

Home nursing and hygiene: handwashing with soap for 20 seconds, sterile dressing technique, temperature and pulse recording, oral rehydration preparation in correct proportion, and safe disposal of waste.

Record keeping in practical work: maintain a dated record of aims, materials, method, observations, results and conclusions; include photographs or samples where relevant for the project file.

Project method steps: select a real problem, survey and review literature, state objectives and hypotheses, plan tools (questionnaire, interview schedule, observation checklist), collect and tabulate data, analyse, report and present.

A good questionnaire uses simple unambiguous language, avoids leading and double-barrelled questions, places sensitive questions later, and is pre-tested on a small sample.

Data presentation: frequency tables, bar graphs, pie charts, line graphs; mean, median and mode measure central tendency; range and standard deviation measure spread.

Life skills (WHO): self-awareness, empathy, critical thinking, creative thinking, decision-making, problem-solving, effective communication, interpersonal relationships, coping with stress, coping with emotions.

Decision-making steps: define the problem, list alternatives, weigh consequences, choose, act and evaluate; use a simple decision matrix with weighted criteria when options are close.

Time and stress management for students: timetable with fixed study blocks, Pomodoro cycles of 25 minutes work and 5 minutes rest, adequate sleep of 7-9 hours, physical activity and screen-time limits.

Financial literacy for youth: distinguish needs from wants, budget pocket money, save regularly, understand simple versus compound interest, and avoid unverified online loans and investment schemes.

Entrepreneurship basics: identify a market need, estimate cost and price, prepare a business plan with break-even point, register the enterprise, and use digital payments and e-commerce responsibly.

Health and safety in projects: use clean water and hygienic handling for food samples, wear protective gear for craft and gardening work, and obtain consent when collecting data from people.