Kerala +2 Political Science key terms

The supreme and final authority of a state to make and enforce laws within its territory without external interference. It distinguishes a state from other associations and may be located in the people, a monarch, or a constitution.

The doctrine that ultimate political authority rests with the people, who delegate power to governments through elections and constitutions. It underpins democratic legitimacy and the idea that governments can be replaced by those they govern.

Max Weber's criterion that a state successfully claims the exclusive right to use physical force within its territory, backed by law. Other groups may use force only as the state permits, for example police or licensed self-defence.

A theoretical device describing how individuals move from a lawless condition to organised society by mutual agreement. Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau used it differently, but all justified political obligation by consent rather than divine right.

An imagined condition of humanity before political society, used by contract theorists to reason about human nature and the purpose of government. Hobbes described it as war; Locke saw it as governed by natural law.

Rights believed to belong to every person by virtue of being human, independent of any government's grant. Locke named life, liberty and property; they inspired later declarations and modern human rights instruments.

The principle that everyone, including rulers and officials, is subject to publicly known law applied equally and through fair procedures. It opposes arbitrary power and requires independent courts and predictable legal rules.

The condition of acting according to one's own will without arbitrary restraint. Thinkers distinguish negative liberty (absence of interference) from positive liberty (capacity for self-mastery), and both are limited by others' equal freedom.

The moral claim that persons deserve equal concern and respect, expressed politically as equal citizenship, equal votes and non-discrimination. Substantive equality also permits differential treatment to correct entrenched disadvantage.

John Rawls's theory that just institutions are those rational people would choose behind a veil of ignorance, including equal basic liberties and inequalities arranged to benefit the least advantaged.

A thought experiment in which people choose principles of justice without knowing their own talents, wealth, caste, sex or social position. Ignorance of one's place is meant to force impartial reasoning about fair institutions.

Policies giving preferential consideration to members of groups historically excluded from education, employment or political representation. In India it takes the form of reservations, debated through equality and merit arguments.

Freedoms protecting individuals from unjustified state interference, such as speech, assembly, religion and personal liberty. In India they appear mainly as Fundamental Rights enforceable in courts against state action.

The body elected in 1946 to frame India's Constitution, sitting from December 1946 to November 1949. It combined constitution-making with legislative work and adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949.

The opening statement of the Constitution declaring India a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic and listing justice, liberty, equality and fraternity as objectives. Courts use it as an interpretive aid, not as an independent source of power.

Justiciable rights in Part III of the Indian Constitution, including equality, freedom, against exploitation, religion, cultural and educational rights, and constitutional remedies. They bind the state and can be enforced through writs.

Non-justiciable guidelines in Part IV directing the state towards social and economic democracy, such as living wages, village panchayats and a uniform civil code. Courts use them to interpret Fundamental Rights and uphold welfare legislation.

The judicial principle, established in Kesavananda Bharati (1973), that Parliament cannot amend the Constitution so as to destroy its essential features such as supremacy of the Constitution, secularism, federalism and judicial review.

The power of courts to examine laws and executive actions for conformity with the Constitution and to declare them invalid if inconsistent. In India it flows from Articles 13, 32 and 226 and supports constitutional supremacy.

The authority of the Supreme Court (Article 32) and High Courts (Article 226) to issue orders such as habeas corpus, mandamus, certiorari, prohibition and quo warranto for enforcing rights or reviewing official action.

A form of government in which the executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature, holds office while it commands a majority, and can be removed by a no-confidence vote. India adopted it at Union and State levels.

The convention that the council of ministers stands or falls together and answers to the legislature as a body. A minister who cannot publicly support government policy must resign or be dismissed.

A legislative motion stating that the House lacks confidence in the council of ministers. If passed by a majority, the government must resign, making it a key instrument of parliamentary accountability.

The constitutional head of state elected indirectly by an electoral college, exercising powers largely on ministerial advice. The office symbolises the unity of the Republic and holds reserve powers in hung or caretaker situations.

A temporary law made by the President or a Governor under Articles 123 and 213 when the legislature is not in session. It must be laid before the legislature and ceases to operate if not approved within the prescribed period.

A system dividing powers between a national government and constituent units, each exercising authority directly over citizens under a written constitution. Disputes over competence are settled by courts or constitutional mechanisms.

Elements in India's Constitution that centralise power, such as a single citizenship, All-India Services, emergency provisions, Governor's appointment and the Union's power to reorganise states. They coexist with federal features.

A constitutional body under Article 263 that inquires into and advises on disputes or common interests among states and coordinates policy. It is a consultative forum, not a court, and its recommendations are not binding.

A constitutional body constituted every five years under Article 280 to recommend distribution of tax proceeds between the Union and states and principles governing grants-in-aid. Its recommendations strengthen fiscal federalism.

A constitutional body created by the 101st Amendment to decide rates, exemptions and administrative arrangements for the goods and services tax. It gives states a formal voice in a shared indirect-tax regime.

The constitutional head of a state, appointed by the President, who acts largely on the advice of the state ministry. The office is central to federal debate because the appointee is not elected by the state's people.

The 1992 amendment inserting Part IX and the Eleventh Schedule, making panchayats constitutional bodies with three tiers, five-year terms, reservations and State Election Commissions and Finance Commissions.

The 1992 amendment inserting Part IXA and the Twelfth Schedule, recognising urban local bodies such as municipalities and municipal corporations and providing for their elected composition, functions and finances.

The assembly of all registered voters in a village panchayat area, constituted under Article 243A. It exercises powers and functions assigned by state law and is the base of direct participatory democracy in rural India.

The transfer of powers, functions and resources from higher to lower levels of government. Devolution, a strong form, gives local bodies constitutional status and independent finances, as in the panchayati raj framework.

An independent constitutional authority under Article 324 that superintends, directs and controls elections to Parliament, state legislatures and the offices of President and Vice-President, including preparation of electoral rolls.

A set of guidelines enforced by the Election Commission from the announcement of an election until results, regulating campaigning, rallies, expenditure and government announcements to ensure a level playing field.

The Tenth Schedule, added in 1985, disqualifies legislators who voluntarily give up party membership or vote against party direction. It aims to curb floor-crossing but has been criticised for weakening legislative dissent.

Government formed by two or more parties sharing power, usually because no single party wins a majority. Coalitions require negotiated common programmes and have shaped Indian politics at the Union and in several states.

The right of all adult citizens to vote regardless of wealth, sex, caste, literacy or religion. India adopted it from the first general election of 1951-52, a radical choice for a newly independent, largely poor society.

The division of governmental authority among legislature, executive and judiciary so that each checks the others. It is a core organising principle of comparative constitutional design, though parliamentary systems fuse executive and legislature.

A system in which a directly or separately elected president heads the executive, serves a fixed term and is not removable by a simple legislative majority. The United States is the standard example.

The systematic study of political institutions and processes across countries to identify similarities, differences and causal patterns. It relies on careful case selection and concepts that travel across contexts.

The UN organ with primary responsibility for international peace and security, having five permanent and ten elected members. Its permanent members hold veto power, a frequent target of reform demands.

The right of each permanent member of the UN Security Council to block a substantive resolution by a single negative vote. It protects great-power interests but can paralyse action in crises.

The principle that aggression against one member is treated as aggression against all, who then act jointly to restore peace. It underlies the UN Charter but has been unevenly applied because of great-power rivalry.

The foreign policy of not joining either Cold War bloc while retaining independence of judgment and active engagement in international forums. India championed it under Nehru as a strategy of strategic autonomy.

The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence signed by India and China in 1954, covering sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality and peaceful settlement. They became a slogan of Indian and Asian diplomacy.

A state's capacity to make foreign and security choices according to its own interests rather than bloc pressure. India invokes it to justify multi-alignment, independent defence procurement and issue-based partnerships.

An international order with several significant power centres rather than one hegemon or two superpowers. It encourages shifting alliances and regional balancing, and shapes how middle powers like India negotiate.

The deepening interconnection of economies and societies through trade, investment, technology, migration and communication. It brings growth and exchange but also inequality, cultural homogenisation and vulnerability to distant shocks.

The framework of treaties and negotiations, from the UNFCCC through the Paris Agreement, addressing greenhouse gas emissions. It rests on common but differentiated responsibilities and nationally determined contributions.

Development meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It integrates economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection, and frames the UN's 2030 Agenda goals.

The sphere of voluntary associations, movements, media and non-governmental organisations operating between the family, market and state. It channels demands, scrutinises power and builds democratic skills and public deliberation.

Kerala's women-centred neighbourhood network of community development societies, launched in 1998, which organises thrift groups, livelihoods and local development work. It is a widely studied model of participatory poverty reduction.

Kerala's 1996-2001 decentralisation drive that devolved roughly a third of plan funds to local bodies and involved citizens in preparing village-level plans. It is a landmark case of participatory planning in India.