Kerala +2 Sanskrit Sastra cheat sheet

Mahakavya: a court epic in sargas (cantos) with a heroic or devotional theme; the five sandhis (mukha, pratimukha, garbha, vimarsa, upasamhrti) structure the plot.

Kalidasa's seven works: Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta, Rtusamhara, Abhijnanasakuntala, Vikramorvasiya, Malavikagnimitra.

Abhijnanasakuntala uses the abhijnana (token of recognition) - the ring - to resolve the curse of Durvasa; the play has 7 ankas.

Natya: dasarupaka (ten dramatic forms) - nataka, prakarana, anka, vyayoga, samavakara, ihamrga, dima, vyayoga, prahasana, bhaga; nataka is the highest, drawing from history or legend.

Rasa theory (Bharata's Natyasastra, ch. 6): eight rasas - srngara, hasya, karuna, raudra, vira, bhayanaka, bibhatsa, adbhuta; santa added later by Abhinavagupta.

Rasa is produced by the combination of vibhava (determinant), anubhava (consequent), and vyabhicaribhava (transitory states), not by any one alone.

Sandhi and sandhyanga: each sandhi has prescribed sandhyangas (e.g., mukha has udbheda, bindu, prapanca); failure to place them is a structural defect in a mahakavya.

Alamkara: anuprasa (alliteration), yamaka (repetition), upama (simile), rupaka (metaphor), utpreksa (poetic fancy), atisayokti (hyperbole), svabhavokti (natural description), slesa (pun).

Mudra and ankya: the name of the poet or a deity is often woven into the final verse (bharatavakya) of a Sanskrit play.

Panini's Astadhyayi: 8 chapters (adhyayas), ~4000 sutras; the Siva Sutras (Pratyahara Sutras) generate pratyaharas like 'ak' (all vowels) and 'hal' (all consonants).

Three types of karaka relation: kartr (agent), karma (object), karana (instrument); Panini orders cases from the verb's meaning, not from surface position.

Vibhakti: 7 cases + vocative; prathama (nominative), dvitiya (accusative), trtiya (instrumental), caturthi (dative), pancami (ablative), sasthi (genitive), saptami (locative).

Sandhi: svara sandhi (vowel), vyanjana sandhi (consonant), visarga sandhi; e.g., 'deva + indra = devendra' (guna), 'tat + ca = tacca' (consonant assimilation).

Samasa: 6 main types - tatpurusa, karmadharaya, dvigu, dvandva, bahuvrihi, avyayibhava; each has a distinct meaning relation between members.

Sphota theory (Bhartrhari, Vakyapadiya): the word-meaning is grasped as an indivisible unit (sphota), not built up from phonemes; three levels - pasyanti, madhyama, vaikhari.

Vakyapadiya distinguishes 'sabda' from 'artha'; the sentence (vakya) is the primary unit of meaning, and the word is an abstraction (anvitabhidhana vs abhihitanvaya debate).

Krt and taddhita pratyayas: krt forms nouns from verbs (e.g., -aka, -tr), taddhita forms derivatives (e.g., -in, -ya); the suffix determines the final meaning, not the root alone.

Anuvrtti and the 'yatha-sankhya' rule: Panini's sutras inherit words from earlier sutras; a rule applies only to the domain it inherits unless explicitly extended.

Six astika darsanas: Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta; nastika: Carvaka, Buddhist (Bauddha), Jaina.

Nyaya: 16 categories (padarthas) including pramana, prameya, samsaya, prayojana; four pramanas - pratyaksa, anumana, upamana, sabda.

Vaisesika: 7 padarthas - dravya, guna, karma, samanya, visesa, samavaya, abhava; atomism (paramanu) explains material reality.

Sankhya: 25 tattvas, purusa (consciousness) and prakrti (matter); three gunas - sattva, rajas, tamas - explain cosmic evolution.

Yoga (Patanjali): 8 limbs (astanga) - yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, samadhi; the goal is kaivalya.

Mimamsa (Jaimini): Vedic injunction (vidhi) is the authority; sabda as pramana is restricted to Vedic testimony; Kumarila and Prabhakara are the two schools.

Vedanta: Advaita (Sankara) - Brahman alone is real; Visistadvaita (Ramanuja) - qualified non-dualism; Dvaita (Madhva) - real distinction between God and soul.

Sanskrit literature history: Ramayana (Valmiki), Mahabharata (Vyasa), 18 Puranas, the 5 mahakavyas, and the Natyasastra (Bharata) as the earliest dramaturgy.

Buddhist and Jaina Sanskrit works: Asvaghosa's Buddhacarita, Jayadeva's Gita Govinda (devotional lyric), and the Jaina Puranas are part of the wider Sanskrit canon.

Anvaya: reorder a Sanskrit verse into prose word order before translating; identify the verb (kriya) and the subject (kartr) first, then resolve karaka relations.

Sandhi-viccheda: split compounds and sandhi before translation; a long compound (samasa) must be analysed into its members to find the head word.

Translation into Sanskrit: choose the case ending from the verb's meaning (karaka), not from the English word order; use the appropriate lakara (tense/mood).

Comprehension: identify the theme (visaya), the speaker, and the purpose (prayojana) of a passage; note whether the tone is stuti (praise) or ninda (censure).

Composition: a Sanskrit paragraph follows the order subject - object - verb; use upapada and avyaya correctly, and keep sandhi consistent at word boundaries.

Idioms and fixed expressions: 'iti' marks a quotation or the end of a list; 'ca' coordinates, 'api' intensifies, 'eva' restricts, 'tu' contrasts.

Numbers and dates: Sanskrit ordinals (prathama, dvitiya, trtiya) and cardinals (eka, dvi, tri) must agree in gender and case with the noun.

Metre (chandas) in comprehension: anustubh (8 syllables per pada), indravajra (11), upajati, and mandakranta (17) are common; count syllables to identify a verse form.

Proofreading: check for purva-rupa (sandhi errors), linga (gender) agreement, and vacana (number) agreement between adjective and noun.

Kavya alamkaras: svabhavokti (natural description), vakrokti (oblique expression), and the three gunas of kavya - prasada, ojas, madhurya.

Riti (style) schools: Vaidarbhi (graceful, Kalidasa), Gaudiya (ornate, Bana), Pancali (mixed); riti is the arrangement of syllables that gives a distinctive flavour.

Dhavani theory (Anandavardhana, Dhvanyaloka): the suggested sense (dhvani) is the soul of poetry; three types - vastu-dhvani, alamkara-dhvani, rasa-dhvani.

Nataka structure: 5 sandhis and 5 arthaprakrtis (bija, bindu, pataka, prakarika, karya) work together; the bija (seed) must reappear at the resolution.

Character types in nataka: nayaka (hero), nayika (heroine), and the vidusaka (jester) provides comic relief; the sutradhara opens the play with the nandi.

Bharata's Natyasastra: 36 chapters covering rasa, bhava, abhinaya (gesture), and the origin of drama as a fifth Veda for all castes.

Kalidasa's Meghaduta: a mandakranta lyric of 111 verses; a yaksha in exile sends a cloud as messenger to his wife - an example of sandesa-kavya.

Bana's Kadambari and Harsacarita: prose kavya (gadya-kavya) with long compounds; Bana is the model of the ornate Gaudiya style.

Bhavabhuti's Uttararamacarita and Mahaviracarita: the last two plays of a trilogy (with Malatimadhava) show karuna and vira rasas respectively.

Sanskrit noun declension: 8 cases (including vocative) and 3 numbers (eka, dvi, bahu); the stem class (a, i, u, r, etc.) determines the endings.

Verb classes: 10 ganas; class 1 (bhvadi) and class 6 (tudadi) take the thematic vowel -a-; class 2 (adadi) is athematic; class 10 (curadi) takes the causative suffix -aya-.

Lakaras: lat (present), lit (perfect), lrt (future), lot (imperative), lan (imperfect), vidhilin (optative), asirlin (benedictive), lrn (conditional); each carries a distinct modal or temporal sense.

Parasmaipada vs Atmanepada: the choice depends on the verb's meaning (e.g., 'sevate' is atmanepada); some roots take both with a meaning difference.

Sandhi of visarga: 'ah' becomes 'o' before a voiced consonant (manah + hita = manohita); visarga disappears before 'a' (deva + asura = devasura).

Compound analysis: in a tatpurusa the last member is the head; in a bahuvrihi the compound refers to an outside noun (e.g., 'bahuvrihi' = 'having much rice').

Sphota and sabda-brahman: Bhartrhari identifies the ultimate reality with sabda-brahman; the word is not a mere convention but the very form of knowledge.

Abhihitanvaya (Prabhakara) vs anvitabhidhana (Kumarila): the former says words first express their meanings and then the sentence relates them; the latter says words express meanings only in relation to the sentence.

Panini's metalanguage: 'pratipada' and 'samartha' rules govern compound formation; 'samartha' means the compound members must be semantically connected.

Nyaya pramana: pratyaksa (perception), anumana (inference, with 5 members - pratijna, hetu, udaharana, upanaya, nigamana), upamana (comparison), sabda (testimony).

Vaisesika categories: dravya (9 substances - earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, self, mind); guna (24 qualities); karma (5 kinds of motion).

Sankhya evolution: prakrti → mahat (buddhi) → ahamkara → manas and the 10 indriyas and 5 tanmatras → 5 mahabhutas; purusa is passive witness.

Advaita Vedanta: maya (avidya) superimposes the world on Brahman; jnana alone removes avidya; the mahavakyas ('tat tvam asi') assert identity.

Visistadvaita: Brahman is saguna with cit and acit as its body; bhakti and prapatti lead to moksa; the soul is real but dependent.

Dvaita (Madhva): fivefold difference (pancabheda) - God/soul, God/matter, soul/soul, soul/matter, matter/matter; moksa is eternal service.

Mimamsa: the Vedas are eternal and authorless (apauruseya); dharma is known only through vidhi (injunction); the six pramanas include arthapatti and anupalabdhi.

Carvaka: only pratyaksa is valid; the world arises from matter; there is no soul, no afterlife, no karma - a thoroughgoing materialism.

Sanskrit literary history: the Ramayana has 7 kandas; the Mahabharata has 18 parvas; the Bhagavad Gita is in the Bhismaparva; the Puranas number 18.

Translation strategy: parse the Sanskrit sentence into kartr, karma, karana, and kriya; then render into the target language keeping the same semantic roles.

Sandhi in composition: apply vowel sandhi (guna/vrddhi) at word boundaries; e.g., 'sura + indra = surendra', 'nara + uttama = narottama'.

Compound formation in composition: a tatpurusa is formed when the first member determines the second; a dvandva when members are coordinate; a bahuvrihi when the compound denotes a possessor.

Comprehension of prose: identify the topic sentence (visaya-vakya), the supporting examples (udaharana), and the conclusion (nigamana); these mirror the 5-member inference.

Letter writing (patra): Sanskrit letters open with 'priya' or 'namaste', use the vocative case, and close with 'iti' or 'bhava eva'.

Essay (nibandha) structure: prastavana (introduction), visaya-vistara (body), upasamhara (conclusion); use connectives like 'tatha', 'api ca', 'atah'.

Numbers in Sanskrit: eka, dvi, tri, catur, panca, sat, sapta, asta, nava, dasa; ordinals add -ma (prathama, dvitiya) or -tama.

Metre identification: count syllables per pada; anustubh = 8, indravajra = 11, vasantatilaka = 14, mandakranta = 17, sragdhara = 21.

Common translation pitfalls: mistaking a passive construction (karmani prayoga) for active; ignoring the negative particle 'na'/'a-' at the start of a compound.

Kavya types: drsya (dramatic, meant to be seen) and sravya (auditory, meant to be heard); sravya includes mahakavya, khandakavya, and gadya-kavya.

Khandakavya: a shorter narrative poem, e.g., Kalidasa's Meghaduta or Rtusamhara; it lacks the full sandhi structure of a mahakavya.

Nataka: the hero is a king or noble (dhirodatta), the heroine a noble lady; the plot is drawn from history or legend; the play ends happily.

Prakarana: a play with a invented plot, a brahmin or merchant hero, and a heroine who may be a courtesan; e.g., Mrcchakatika (Sudraka).

Abhinaya: four types - angika (gesture), vacika (speech), aharya (costume), sattvika (emotional expression); all four are needed for rasa.

Bhava: 49 transitory states (vyabhicaribhava) plus 8 sthayibhava (permanent states) that ripen into rasa when combined with vibhava and anubhava.

Alamkara examples: upama ('mukham iva padmam' - face like a lotus), rupaka ('mukham eva padmam' - face is a lotus), utpreksa (imagined identity).

Sandhi in drama: the 5 sandhis are mukha, pratimukha, garbha, vimarsa, upasamhrti; each must contain its prescribed sandhyangas.

Rasa realization: srngara arises from the union of a suitable nayaka and nayika; karuna from loss or separation; vira from heroism in battle.

Dhatu: a verbal root; there are about 2000 roots in Panini's dhatupatha, grouped into 10 ganas; the root's meaning determines the karaka structure.

Pratyaya: a suffix; krt suffixes form nouns (e.g., -aka, -ana, -tr), taddhita suffixes form derivatives (e.g., -in, -ya, -tva).

Vibhakti: case endings; the 7 cases (plus vocative) are assigned by karaka rules, not by fixed prepositions.

Samasa: compound; the 6 types are tatpurusa, karmadharaya, dvigu, dvandva, bahuvrihi, avyayibhava; each has a distinct head-member relation.

Sphota: the indivisible word-meaning unit; Bhartrhari's Vakyapadiya argues that phonemes are only the means, not the meaning itself.

Sabda-brahman: the ultimate reality as word; Bhartrhari holds that the world is a manifestation of language, and liberation comes from knowing its true nature.

Anvitabhidhana vs abhihitanvaya: Kumarila holds words express meanings only in a sentence; Prabhakara holds words first express meanings, then the sentence relates them.

Panini's method: the Siva Sutras generate pratyaharas; the 'yatha-sankhya' rule applies items in order; 'anuvrtti' carries words from earlier sutras.

Sandhi rules: guna (a + i = e), vrddhi (a + ai = ai), and consonant assimilation (tat + ca = tacca); visarga becomes 'o' before voiced consonants.

Astika vs nastika: astika accepts the authority of the Vedas (Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta); nastika rejects it (Carvaka, Bauddha, Jaina).

Pramana: a valid means of knowledge; Nyaya accepts 4 (pratyaksa, anumana, upamana, sabda); Mimamsa accepts 6 (adding arthapatti and anupalabdhi).

Anumana: inference with 5 members - pratijna (thesis), hetu (reason), udaharana (example), upanaya (application), nigamana (conclusion).

Sankhya: 25 tattvas; purusa (consciousness) and prakrti (matter); the 3 gunas (sattva, rajas, tamas) explain evolution and bondage.

Yoga: 8 limbs (astanga) - yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, samadhi; the goal is kaivalya (isolation of purusa).

Vedanta schools: Advaita (Sankara), Visistadvaita (Ramanuja), Dvaita (Madhva); each interprets the Upanisads, Bhagavad Gita, and Brahma Sutras.

Mimamsa: the Vedas are apauruseya (authorless) and eternal; dharma is known only through vidhi (injunction); Kumarila and Prabhakara differ on sabda.

Sanskrit literary history: Valmiki's Ramayana (7 kandas), Vyasa's Mahabharata (18 parvas), 18 Puranas, and the Natyasastra of Bharata.

Buddhist and Jaina Sanskrit: Asvaghosa's Buddhacarita, Jayadeva's Gita Govinda, and the Jaina Puranas are part of the wider Sanskrit canon.

Anvaya: prose word order of a verse; identify the kriya (verb) and kartr (subject) first, then resolve the remaining karakas.

Sandhi-viccheda: splitting sandhi and compounds before translation; a long samasa must be analysed into its members to find the head word.

Kartr, karma, karana: agent, object, instrument; the case ending follows the verb's meaning, not the English word order.

Lakara: tense/mood marker; lat (present), lit (perfect), lrt (future), lot (imperative), vidhilin (optative); choose the lakara that matches the intended sense.

Upapada and avyaya: indeclinables (ca, api, eva, tu, iti) do not change form; place them correctly to preserve the sentence's logic.

Comprehension: identify the theme (visaya), the speaker, and the purpose (prayojana); note whether the tone is stuti (praise) or ninda (censure).

Composition: a Sanskrit paragraph follows subject - object - verb; apply sandhi consistently at word boundaries.

Numbers and dates: cardinals (eka, dvi, tri) and ordinals (prathama, dvitiya) must agree in gender, number, and case with the noun.

Metre in comprehension: count syllables per pada - anustubh (8), indravajra (11), vasantatilaka (14), mandakranta (17), sragdhara (21).

Rasa: the aesthetic relish produced by the combination of vibhava, anubhava, and vyabhicaribhava; the 8 rasas are srngara, hasya, karuna, raudra, vira, bhayanaka, bibhatsa, adbhuta.

Dhvani: the suggested sense; Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka argues that dhvani is the soul of poetry, superior to alamkara.

Alamkara: ornament; upama (simile), rupaka (metaphor), utpreksa (fancy), atisayokti (hyperbole), slesa (pun), yamaka (repetition).

Guna: the three qualities of kavya - prasada (clarity), ojas (vigour), madhurya (sweetness); riti is the arrangement that produces them.

Riti: Vaidarbhi (graceful), Gaudiya (ornate), Pancali (mixed); Kalidasa is the model of Vaidarbhi, Bana of Gaudiya.

Sandhi: the 5 plot divisions of a nataka - mukha, pratimukha, garbha, vimarsa, upasamhrti; each has prescribed sandhyangas.

Nataka: the highest of the 10 rupakas; the hero is a dhirodatta king, the plot is from history or legend, and the ending is happy.

Prakarana: an invented plot with a brahmin or merchant hero; Mrcchakatika is the classic example.

Abhinaya: angika (gesture), vacika (speech), aharya (costume), sattvika (emotion); all four are needed for rasa.

Astadhyayi: 8 adhyayas, ~4000 sutras; the Siva Sutras generate pratyaharas like 'ak' (vowels) and 'hal' (consonants).

Dhatu: a verbal root; the 10 ganas group roots by conjugation pattern; class 1 (bhvadi) and class 6 (tudadi) take the thematic vowel -a-.

Pratyaya: krt suffixes form nouns (e.g., -aka, -ana, -tr); taddhita suffixes form derivatives (e.g., -in, -ya, -tva).

Vibhakti: 8 cases (including vocative) and 3 numbers; the stem class determines the endings (a-stem, i-stem, u-stem, r-stem).

Samasa: 6 types - tatpurusa, karmadharaya, dvigu, dvandva, bahuvrihi, avyayibhava; the head member determines the compound's meaning.

Sandhi: svara (vowel), vyanjana (consonant), visarga; guna (a + i = e), vrddhi (a + ai = ai), assimilation (tat + ca = tacca).

Lakara: lat (present), lit (perfect), lrt (future), lot (imperative), lan (imperfect), vidhilin (optative), asirlin (benedictive), lrn (conditional).

Parasmaipada vs Atmanepada: the choice depends on the verb's meaning; some roots take both with a meaning difference.

Sphota: Bhartrhari's Vakyapadiya holds that the word-meaning is an indivisible unit, not built up from phonemes.

Nyaya: 16 padarthas; 4 pramanas (pratyaksa, anumana, upamana, sabda); inference has 5 members.

Vaisesika: 7 padarthas - dravya, guna, karma, samanya, visesa, samavaya, abhava; 9 dravyas including ether, time, space, self, mind.

Sankhya: 25 tattvas; purusa and prakrti; 3 gunas (sattva, rajas, tamas); evolution from prakrti to the 5 mahabhutas.

Yoga: 8 limbs (astanga); the goal is kaivalya; Patanjali's Yoga Sutras define citta-vrtti-nirodha as yoga.

Mimamsa: the Vedas are apauruseya; dharma is known through vidhi; 6 pramanas including arthapatti and anupalabdhi.

Vedanta: Advaita (Sankara), Visistadvaita (Ramanuja), Dvaita (Madhva); each comments on the Prasthanatrayi.

Carvaka: only pratyaksa is valid; materialism; no soul, no afterlife, no karma.

Sanskrit literary history: Ramayana (7 kandas), Mahabharata (18 parvas), 18 Puranas, Natyasastra of Bharata.

Buddhist and Jaina Sanskrit: Asvaghosa's Buddhacarita; Jayadeva's Gita Govinda; Jaina Puranas.

Anvaya: reorder a verse into prose; identify kriya (verb) and kartr (subject) first, then resolve karakas.

Sandhi-viccheda: split sandhi and compounds; analyse a long samasa into members to find the head word.

Translation into Sanskrit: choose the case ending from the verb's meaning (karaka); use the correct lakara for tense/mood.

Comprehension: identify visaya (theme), speaker, and prayojana (purpose); note stuti (praise) vs ninda (censure).

Composition: subject - object - verb order; use upapada and avyaya correctly; keep sandhi consistent.

Idioms: 'iti' marks quotation or list end; 'ca' coordinates; 'api' intensifies; 'eva' restricts; 'tu' contrasts.

Numbers: cardinals (eka, dvi, tri) and ordinals (prathama, dvitiya) agree in gender, number, and case.

Metre: count syllables per pada - anustubh (8), indravajra (11), vasantatilaka (14), mandakranta (17).

Proofreading: check purva-rupa (sandhi errors), linga (gender) agreement, and vacana (number) agreement.

Kalidasa: Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta, Rtusamhara, Abhijnanasakuntala, Vikramorvasiya, Malavikagnimitra.

Abhijnanasakuntala: 7 ankas; the ring (abhijnana) resolves Durvasa's curse; the play ends with the reunion of Sakuntala and Dushyanta.

Meghaduta: 111 verses in mandakranta; a yaksha in exile sends a cloud as messenger to his wife.

Bana: Kadambari and Harsacarita; ornate Gaudiya prose with long compounds.

Bhavabhuti: Malatimadhava, Mahaviracarita, Uttararamacarita; karuna and vira rasas.

Sudraka: Mrcchakatika; a prakarana with an invented plot and a brahmin hero.

Bharata: Natyasastra, 36 chapters; rasa, bhava, abhinaya, and the origin of drama.

Anandavardhana: Dhvanyaloka; dhvani as the soul of poetry.

Bhartrhari: Vakyapadiya; sphota and sabda-brahman.

Karaka: the semantic role of a noun relative to the verb; kartr (agent), karma (object), karana (instrument), sampradana (recipient), apadana (source), adhikarana (locus).

Vibhakti: case ending; prathama (nominative), dvitiya (accusative), trtiya (instrumental), caturthi (dative), pancami (ablative), sasthi (genitive), saptami (locative).

Samasa: compound; tatpurusa, karmadharaya, dvigu, dvandva, bahuvrihi, avyayibhava.

Sphota: indivisible word-meaning unit; Bhartrhari's Vakyapadiya; three levels - pasyanti, madhyama, vaikhari.

Sabda-brahman: ultimate reality as word; liberation through knowing language's true nature.

Anvitabhidhana vs abhihitanvaya: Kumarila vs Prabhakara on how words and sentences express meaning.

Panini: Astadhyayi, 8 adhyayas; Siva Sutras; pratyahara; anuvrtti; yatha-sankhya.

Sandhi: guna (a + i = e), vrddhi (a + ai = ai), consonant assimilation (tat + ca = tacca), visarga sandhi.

Dhatu and pratyaya: roots and suffixes; krt forms nouns, taddhita forms derivatives.

Ramayana: Valmiki; 7 kandas; the story of Rama and Sita; a foundational kavya.

Mahabharata: Vyasa; 18 parvas; the Bhagavad Gita is in the Bhismaparva.

Puranas: 18; contain cosmology, genealogy, and devotion; a major source of Sanskrit literature.

Natyasastra: Bharata; 36 chapters; rasa, bhava, abhinaya; the earliest dramaturgy.

Dhvanyaloka: Anandavardhana; dhvani as the soul of poetry.

Vakyapadiya: Bhartrhari; sphota and sabda-brahman.

Yoga Sutras: Patanjali; 8 limbs; kaivalya.

Brahma Sutras: Badarayana; the foundation of Vedanta; commented on by Sankara, Ramanuja, Madhva.

Gita Govinda: Jayadeva; a devotional lyric on Radha and Krishna; part of the wider Sanskrit canon.

Anvaya: prose order of a verse; identify kriya and kartr first, then resolve karakas.

Sandhi-viccheda: split sandhi and compounds; analyse a long samasa into members to find the head word.

Translation into Sanskrit: choose the case ending from the verb's meaning; use the correct lakara.

Comprehension: identify visaya (theme), speaker, and prayojana (purpose); note stuti vs ninda.

Composition: subject - object - verb order; use upapada and avyaya correctly; keep sandhi consistent.

Idioms: 'iti' marks quotation; 'ca' coordinates; 'api' intensifies; 'eva' restricts; 'tu' contrasts.

Numbers: cardinals (eka, dvi, tri) and ordinals (prathama, dvitiya) agree in gender, number, and case.

Metre: count syllables per pada - anustubh (8), indravajra (11), vasantatilaka (14), mandakranta (17).

Proofreading: check purva-rupa (sandhi errors), linga (gender) agreement, and vacana (number) agreement.

Rasa: aesthetic relish; 8 rasas - srngara, hasya, karuna, raudra, vira, bhayanaka, bibhatsa, adbhuta; santa added later.

Vibhava: determinant; anubhava: consequent; vyabhicaribhava: transitory state; the three combine to produce rasa.

Sthayibhava: permanent state; 8 in number; they ripen into rasa when combined with vibhava and anubhava.

Abhinaya: angika (gesture), vacika (speech), aharya (costume), sattvika (emotion); all four are needed for rasa.

Sandhi: 5 plot divisions - mukha, pratimukha, garbha, vimarsa, upasamhrti; each has prescribed sandhyangas.

Nataka: the highest of the 10 rupakas; dhirodatta hero; plot from history or legend; happy ending.

Prakarana: invented plot; brahmin or merchant hero; Mrcchakatika is the classic example.

Alamkara: upama, rupaka, utpreksa, atisayokti, slesa, yamaka; ornaments of poetry.

Dhvani: suggested sense; Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka; superior to alamkara.

Svara sandhi: vowel junction; guna (a + i = e), vrddhi (a + ai = ai), and diphthong changes.

Vyanjana sandhi: consonant junction; assimilation (tat + ca = tacca), and insertion of a vowel or consonant.

Visarga sandhi: 'ah' becomes 'o' before a voiced consonant (manah + hita = manohita); visarga disappears before 'a'.

Samasa: 6 types - tatpurusa, karmadharaya, dvigu, dvandva, bahuvrihi, avyayibhava.

Tatpurusa: the last member is the head; the first determines it.

Bahuvrihi: the compound denotes a possessor outside itself (e.g., 'bahuvrihi' = 'having much rice').

Dvandva: coordinate members; the compound denotes both together.

Avyayibhava: the first member is an indeclinable; the compound functions as an adverb.

Dvigu: the first member is a numeral; the compound denotes a collection.

Pramana: valid means of knowledge; Nyaya accepts 4; Mimamsa accepts 6.

Pratyaksa: perception; the most basic pramana; accepted by all schools except Carvaka (which accepts only this).

Anumana: inference; 5 members - pratijna, hetu, udaharana, upanaya, nigamana.

Upamana: comparison; knowledge of a thing from its similarity to a known thing.

Sabda: testimony; accepted as valid by Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vedanta; restricted to Vedic testimony by Mimamsa.

Arthapatti: postulation; accepted by Mimamsa and Advaita; explains facts otherwise inexplicable.

Anupalabdhi: non-apprehension; accepted by Mimamsa and Advaita; knowledge of absence.

Carvaka: only pratyaksa is valid; materialism; no soul, no afterlife, no karma.

Nyaya: 16 padarthas; pramana, prameya, samsaya, prayojana, drstanta, siddhanta.

Karaka: semantic role; kartr (agent), karma (object), karana (instrument), sampradana (recipient), apadana (source), adhikarana (locus).

Vibhakti: case ending; 8 cases including vocative; the ending follows the karaka, not the English word order.

Lakara: tense/mood; lat (present), lit (perfect), lrt (future), lot (imperative), vidhilin (optative).

Upapada: a noun accompanying a verb; it determines the verb's meaning (e.g., 'grham gacchati').

Avyaya: indeclinable; ca, api, eva, tu, iti; does not change form.

Sandhi: apply consistently at word boundaries; guna (a + i = e), vrddhi (a + ai = ai).

Compound: analyse a long samasa into members to find the head word before translating.

Numbers: cardinals (eka, dvi, tri) and ordinals (prathama, dvitiya) agree in gender, number, and case.

Metre: count syllables per pada - anustubh (8), indravajra (11), vasantatilaka (14), mandakranta (17).

Upama: simile; 'mukham iva padmam' - face like a lotus.

Rupaka: metaphor; 'mukham eva padmam' - face is a lotus.

Utpreksa: poetic fancy; imagined identity; 'the moon seems to be a lamp'.

Atisayokti: hyperbole; exaggeration for effect.

Slesa: pun; a word with two meanings.

Yamaka: repetition of the same syllable group with different meanings.

Svabhavokti: natural description; a plain statement of fact.

Vakrokti: oblique expression; the power of saying things indirectly.

Guna: prasada (clarity), ojas (vigour), madhurya (sweetness); qualities of kavya.

Dhatu: verbal root; 10 ganas; class 1 (bhvadi) and class 6 (tudadi) take the thematic vowel -a-.

Pratyaya: suffix; krt forms nouns (e.g., -aka, -ana, -tr); taddhita forms derivatives (e.g., -in, -ya, -tva).

Vibhakti: case ending; 8 cases including vocative; 3 numbers (eka, dvi, bahu).

Lakara: tense/mood; lat (present), lit (perfect), lrt (future), lot (imperative), vidhilin (optative).

Parasmaipada vs Atmanepada: the choice depends on the verb's meaning; some roots take both with a difference.

Samasa: compound; 6 types; the head member determines the meaning.

Sandhi: guna (a + i = e), vrddhi (a + ai = ai), consonant assimilation (tat + ca = tacca).

Sphota: indivisible word-meaning unit; Bhartrhari's Vakyapadiya.

Sabda-brahman: ultimate reality as word; liberation through knowing language's true nature.

Advaita (Sankara): Brahman alone is real; the world is maya; jnana removes avidya; mahavakyas assert identity.

Visistadvaita (Ramanuja): Brahman is saguna with cit and acit as its body; bhakti and prapatti lead to moksa.

Dvaita (Madhva): fivefold difference (pancabheda); moksa is eternal service.

Prasthanatrayi: Upanisads, Bhagavad Gita, Brahma Sutras; the foundation of Vedanta.

Brahma Sutras: Badarayana; commented on by Sankara, Ramanuja, Madhva.

Maya: avidya; superimposition of the world on Brahman; removed by jnana.

Mahavakyas: 'tat tvam asi', 'aham brahmasmi', 'prajnanam brahma', 'ayam atma brahma'.

Bhakti: devotion; the path in Visistadvaita and Dvaita; prapatti is surrender.

Moksa: liberation; the goal of Vedanta; in Advaita it is realizing identity with Brahman.

Patra (letter): opens with 'priya' or 'namaste'; uses the vocative case; closes with 'iti' or 'bhava eva'.

Nibandha (essay): prastavana (introduction), visaya-vistara (body), upasamhara (conclusion).

Connectives: 'tatha' (thus), 'api ca' (moreover), 'atah' (therefore), 'param' (but).

Sandhi: apply consistently at word boundaries; guna (a + i = e), vrddhi (a + ai = ai).

Compound: a tatpurusa is formed when the first member determines the second; a dvandva when members are coordinate.

Numbers: cardinals (eka, dvi, tri) and ordinals (prathama, dvitiya) agree in gender, number, and case.

Metre: count syllables per pada - anustubh (8), indravajra (11), vasantatilaka (14), mandakranta (17).

Proofreading: check purva-rupa (sandhi errors), linga (gender) agreement, and vacana (number) agreement.

Translation: parse into kartr, karma, karana, and kriya; render keeping the same semantic roles.

Dasarupaka: 10 dramatic forms - nataka, prakarana, anka, vyayoga, samavakara, ihamrga, dima, prahasana, bhaga, and the tenth (often vithi).

Nataka: the highest form; dhirodatta hero; plot from history or legend; happy ending.

Prakarana: invented plot; brahmin or merchant hero; Mrcchakatika is the classic example.

Anka: one-act play; a single episode.

Prahasana: farce; comic; low characters.

Bhaga: a play with a divine hero and a happy ending.

Sandhi: 5 plot divisions - mukha, pratimukha, garbha, vimarsa, upasamhrti.

Abhinaya: angika (gesture), vacika (speech), aharya (costume), sattvika (emotion).

Rasa: 8 rasas; produced by vibhava, anubhava, and vyabhicaribhava.

Astadhyayi: 8 adhyayas; ~4000 sutras; the Siva Sutras generate pratyaharas.

Siva Sutras: 14 sutras; pratyaharas like 'ak' (vowels) and 'hal' (consonants).

Anuvrtti: a sutra inherits words from earlier sutras; a rule applies only to the domain it inherits.

Yatha-sankhya: items are applied in order; the first item corresponds to the first.

Pratipada: a rule governing the first member of a compound.

Samartha: the compound members must be semantically connected.

Dhatupatha: the list of roots; ~2000 roots; 10 ganas.

Ganapatha: the list of word groups; used by Panini's rules.

Lakara: tense/mood; lat (present), lit (perfect), lrt (future), lot (imperative), vidhilin (optative).

Nyaya: 16 padarthas; 4 pramanas (pratyaksa, anumana, upamana, sabda).

Anumana: inference; 5 members - pratijna, hetu, udaharana, upanaya, nigamana.

Vaisesika: 7 padarthas - dravya, guna, karma, samanya, visesa, samavaya, abhava.

Dravya: 9 substances - earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, self, mind.

Guna: 24 qualities; karma: 5 kinds of motion.

Visesa: the particularity that distinguishes eternal substances.

Samavaya: inherence; the relation between a substance and its qualities.

Abhava: absence; a category added by later Vaisesika.

Nyaya-Vaisesika: the two schools are often studied together as a pair.

Visaya: the theme of a passage; identify it from the first sentence.

Prayojana: the purpose; why the passage was written.

Stuti vs ninda: praise vs censure; note the tone.

Speaker: identify who is speaking; the speaker's perspective shapes the meaning.

Anvaya: reorder the verse into prose; identify kriya and kartr first.

Sandhi-viccheda: split sandhi and compounds; analyse a long samasa into members.

Karaka: semantic role; kartr (agent), karma (object), karana (instrument).

Lakara: tense/mood; lat (present), lit (perfect), lrt (future), lot (imperative), vidhilin (optative).

Metre: count syllables per pada - anustubh (8), indravajra (11), vasantatilaka (14), mandakranta (17).