Karnataka II PUC Psychology (KSEAB) key terms

A method in which a person reports their own inner experiences, feelings and thoughts as they occur. It was central to early structuralist psychology but is criticised for being subjective and hard to verify.

An early school of psychology that tried to analyse conscious experience into its basic mental elements, mainly through introspection. It is associated with Wilhelm Wundt and his student Edward Titchener.

A school of psychology that asks what mental processes are for, that is, how they help a person adapt and function in the environment. William James is its best-known representative.

An approach that studies only observable behaviour and its relation to environmental stimuli, rejecting the study of inner mental states. It is associated with John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner.

A method in which the researcher systematically watches and records behaviour as it naturally occurs, without manipulating the situation. It may be naturalistic or controlled, and needs clear behaviour categories and trained observers.

A research design in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable while controlling other factors. Random assignment helps support causal conclusions.

The factor in an experiment that the researcher deliberately manipulates or varies, so that its effect on the outcome can be examined. It is the presumed cause in the study.

The measured outcome in an experiment, which is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable. It is the observed effect in the study.

An in-depth, detailed investigation of a single person, group or situation, often used when a phenomenon is rare or unusual. It gives rich qualitative data but findings cannot easily be generalised.

A method of gathering information by asking questions face to face or by telephone, in a structured, semi-structured or unstructured format. It allows follow-up probing but can be affected by interviewer bias.

A design that measures whether two variables are related, without manipulating either one. It shows the direction and strength of a relationship but does not by itself establish causation.

An organised mental framework or set of expectations built from past experience that guides how new information is interpreted and remembered. Schemas help us process information quickly but can also distort recall.

In Piaget's theory, the process of fitting new experiences into an existing mental framework or schema. It works together with accommodation to keep thinking balanced.

In Piaget's theory, the process of changing or creating a mental framework so that a new experience can be understood. It is the counterpart of assimilation in cognitive development.

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. Piaget held that it develops during the sensorimotor stage, towards the end of infancy.

The understanding that quantity, mass or volume stays the same despite changes in appearance or arrangement. According to Piaget it is typically achieved in the concrete operational stage.

The first of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, roughly from birth to two years, when infants learn mainly through senses and actions. Object permanence emerges towards its end.

Piaget's stage from about seven to eleven years, when children can reason logically about concrete objects and events but not about abstract ideas. Conservation and classification become possible here.

A strong emotional bond that an infant forms with a caregiver, which provides security and shapes later social relationships. Bowlby emphasised its evolutionary value; Ainsworth described secure and insecure patterns.

The weakest level of a stimulus that can be detected reliably about half the time. It marks the boundary between what a sense organ can and cannot register.

The smallest change in a stimulus that a person can notice, also called the just noticeable difference. Weber's law holds that it grows in proportion to the original stimulus intensity.

A decrease in sensitivity to a constant stimulus after prolonged exposure to it, such as no longer feeling a watch on the wrist. It helps the senses stay responsive to change.

The tendency to perceive an object as keeping the same size, shape or brightness even when the image on the retina changes with distance or angle. It makes perception stable and predictable.

The ability to judge distance and see the world in three dimensions, using cues such as retinal disparity and relative size. Binocular cues need both eyes, while monocular cues work with one.

A mistaken perception in which a stimulus that is present is seen in a way that does not match its physical reality, as in the Müller-Lyer figure. Illusions differ from hallucinations, which occur without a stimulus.

Learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being repeatedly paired with a stimulus that already produces that response. Pavlov's dog experiments are the classic example.

Learning in which the likelihood of a behaviour changes because of the consequences that follow it, such as reinforcement or punishment. Skinner's work on shaping behaviour is the main example.

Any consequence that increases the probability of the behaviour it follows. Positive reinforcement adds something pleasant, while negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant; both strengthen behaviour.

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned response when the reinforcement or conditioned stimulus pairing is no longer given. It is not the same as forgetting.

Learning by watching the behaviour of others and its consequences, rather than through direct reinforcement. Bandura showed that attention, retention, reproduction and motivation are involved.

The first stage of memory in which information is taken in and converted into a form the memory system can store. It may be visual, acoustic or semantic.

The relatively permanent store that holds information for long periods, with a very large capacity. It includes declarative memory, such as facts and events, and non-declarative memory, such as skills.

A limited-capacity store that holds a small amount of information for a short time without rehearsal, often estimated at about seven items. Chunking and rehearsal extend its effective use.

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that allows quick judgements or decisions, often at the cost of accuracy. The availability and representativeness heuristics are common examples.

The mental process of moving from a current state to a desired goal when an obstacle blocks the direct route. It uses strategies such as algorithms, heuristics and means-end analysis.

The tendency to search for, notice and remember information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring evidence that contradicts them. It can distort reasoning and decision making.

The drive to do something because the activity itself is interesting, enjoyable or satisfying, rather than for an external reward. It usually supports sustained engagement and creativity.

The drive to act in order to gain an external outcome such as money, praise, marks or avoiding punishment. It can be effective but may weaken interest when overused.

The need to meet high standards of excellence and to succeed in tasks that involve competition with a standard. It is often measured with the Thematic Apperception Test.

A complex reaction involving physiological arousal, subjective feeling, expressive behaviour and cognitive appraisal. Emotions prepare action and communicate states to others.

The view that physiological arousal comes first and the subjective feeling of emotion follows from it, as in feeling afraid because we tremble. It contrasts with theories that put arousal and cognition together.

A numerical index of mental ability, traditionally calculated as mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100. Modern tests use standard scores from the normal distribution.

The consistency of a test or measure, that is, whether it gives similar results on repeated occasions or across equivalent forms. It is necessary but not sufficient for validity.

The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. A test can be reliable without being valid, so both qualities are needed.

A relatively stable characteristic of a person that predisposes them to behave in consistent ways across situations. Trait theories describe personality in terms of such dimensions.

A widely used model describing personality through five broad dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism. It is based on factor analysis of trait descriptions.

A personality test that presents ambiguous stimuli, such as inkblots or pictures, and asks the person to respond, on the assumption that inner needs are projected. Scoring is often subjective.

A change in behaviour or belief to match the norms or expectations of a group, often without explicit pressure. Asch's line-judgement studies are the classic demonstration.

Compliance with a direct order or instruction from an authority figure. Milgram's experiments showed that ordinary people may obey orders that harm others.

The tendency of group discussion to shift members' views towards a more extreme position in the direction they already favoured. It can strengthen risky as well as cautious decisions.