Maharashtra HSC Political Science cheat sheet

The Constituent Assembly first met on 9 December 1946; the Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950.

The Constitution originally had 395 Articles, 22 Parts and 8 Schedules; it is now among the longest written constitutions in the world.

The Preamble declares India a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic and lists Justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity as objectives; 'Socialist' and 'Secular' were inserted by the 42nd Amendment (1976).

The Constitution is federal in structure with a strong unitary bias: single citizenship, a single integrated judiciary, All India Services, emergency provisions under Articles 352-360 and Governors appointed by the President.

The doctrine of basic structure, holding that Parliament cannot amend features fundamental to the Constitution, was laid down in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973).

Article 368 sets out the amending procedure: ordinary amendments need a special majority in each House, while federal provisions also need ratification by at least half the State Legislatures.

Sources include the Government of India Act 1935 (largest single source), the US Constitution (fundamental rights, judicial review), the Irish Constitution (Directive Principles) and the Canadian model (strong centre).

Part III (Articles 12-35) contains six categories of Fundamental Rights: Equality (14-18), Freedom (19-22), Against Exploitation (23-24), Religion (25-28), Cultural and Educational (29-30) and Constitutional Remedies (32).

Article 32, called the 'heart and soul of the Constitution' by Dr. Ambedkar, empowers the Supreme Court to issue writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, certiorari and quo warranto; Article 226 gives High Courts similar power.

Article 21A, inserted by the 86th Amendment (2002), makes free and compulsory education a fundamental right for children aged 6 to 14.

Fundamental Rights are enforceable in courts and mostly available against the State, but Article 15(2), Article 17 (abolition of untouchability), Article 23 and Article 24 apply against private individuals too.

Part IV (Articles 36-51) contains Directive Principles, which are non-justiciable but fundamental in governance; Article 37 states they shall not be enforceable by any court.

Article 51A, added by the 42nd Amendment on the Swaran Singh Committee's recommendation, lists 11 Fundamental Duties of citizens; they are non-justiciable.

Conflict between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles is resolved by reading them harmoniously; the 42nd Amendment gave primacy to certain Directive Principles (Articles 39(b) and 39(c)) over Articles 14 and 19.

The President is elected indirectly by an electoral college of elected MPs and elected members of State and Union Territory Legislative Assemblies, using a system of proportional representation with single transferable vote.

The President may be removed only by impeachment for violation of the Constitution under Article 61, requiring a two-thirds majority of the total membership of each House.

The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha (Article 75); the Prime Minister is appointed by the President and other ministers on the Prime Minister's advice.

The Rajya Sabha has a maximum strength of 250 (238 elected, 12 nominated); members serve six-year terms with one-third retiring every two years.

The Lok Sabha has a maximum strength of 552; a money bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha must return it within 14 days with or without recommendations.

The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and other judges, with strength fixed by Parliament (currently 34); judges retire at 65 and are appointed by the President.

Judicial review under Articles 13, 32, 131-136 and 226 allows courts to strike down laws and executive actions inconsistent with the Constitution; the Supreme Court's advisory jurisdiction lies under Article 143.

The Governor is appointed by the President for five years, holds office during the President's pleasure, and is the constitutional head of the State executive; Article 163 provides for a Council of Ministers to aid and advise.

The State Legislature may be unicameral or bicameral; the Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) is created or abolished by Parliament on a resolution of the Assembly passed by a special majority.

The Legislative Assembly's normal term is five years, extendable by one year at a time during a national emergency; the Legislative Council is a permanent house with one-third retiring every two years.

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj institutions, adding Part IX and the Eleventh Schedule (29 subjects).

The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 dealt with urban local bodies, adding Part IXA and the Twelfth Schedule (18 subjects).

Panchayat elections are conducted every five years by the State Election Commission, and the State Finance Commission reviews the financial position of panchayats every five years.

One-third of seats in panchayats and municipalities are reserved for women, with proportionate reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

The Election Commission of India is a constitutional body under Article 324, consisting of the Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners; the CEC can be removed only like a Supreme Court judge.

The Representation of the People Act, 1950 deals with the preparation of electoral rolls and allocation of seats; the Act of 1951 covers conduct of elections, disqualifications and election petitions.

A candidate must be at least 25 years old for the Lok Sabha and State Assembly and 30 for the Rajya Sabha and Legislative Council; the minimum voting age is 18 (61st Amendment, 1988).

A party is recognised as a State party on securing at least 6% of valid votes in the State plus 2 Assembly seats, or 3% of Assembly seats, or 1 Lok Sabha seat per 25 seats; National party status requires this in at least four States.

The Model Code of Conduct applies from the announcement of elections until results are declared and is enforced by the Election Commission.

Electronic Voting Machines with VVPAT were introduced to reduce malpractices; NOTA (None of the Above) was introduced following the Supreme Court's 2013 judgment.

Pressure groups influence policy through lobbying, strikes, agitation and election support but do not contest elections; examples include trade unions, the FICCI and the All India Kisan Sabha.

The All India Services (IAS, IPS and Indian Forest Service) are created under Article 312 and serve both the Union and the States.

The Union Public Service Commission and State Public Service Commissions are constitutional bodies under Articles 315-323, and their members are appointed by the President or Governor respectively.

The 91st Amendment (2003) capped the Council of Ministers at 15% of the strength of the Lok Sabha or State Assembly.

The Right to Information Act, 2005 gives citizens the right to seek information from public authorities, with a Central Information Commission and State Information Commissions as appellate bodies.

The Citizens' Charter, e-governance, the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013, and social audits are instruments of transparency and accountability.

Good governance is characterised by participation, rule of law, transparency, responsiveness, consensus orientation, equity, effectiveness, efficiency and accountability (UNDP characteristics).

The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2005-2009) recommended reforms including the Right to Information, citizen-centric administration and ethics in governance.

The core principles of India's foreign policy are non-alignment, Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, 1954), anti-colonialism, peaceful settlement of disputes and strategic autonomy.

Article 51 of the Constitution directs the State to promote international peace and security and maintain just and honourable relations between nations.

India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (Bandung 1955, Belgrade 1961) and has hosted the NAM summit in 1983.

India is a member of the UN, G20, BRICS, SCO, QUAD, SAARC, BIMSTEC and the Commonwealth, and is a nuclear weapons state outside the NPT.

The Gujral Doctrine (1996) emphasises non-reciprocal concessions to smaller South Asian neighbours.

India's Look East Policy (1991) evolved into the Act East Policy, focusing on ASEAN and East Asian engagement.

Key nuclear milestones: Pokhran-I (1974), Pokhran-II (1998), and the India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement (2008) after the NSG waiver.

Globalisation refers to the integration of economies through trade, investment, technology and migration; India adopted liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation (LPG) reforms in 1991.

The WTO, established in 1995, replaced GATT and governs trade in goods, services and intellectual property; India's concerns include agriculture subsidies and public stockholding.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 1948 and contains 30 articles.

The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 established the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) and State Human Rights Commissions.

The principal environmental statutes are the Environment (Protection) Act 1986, the Water Act 1974, the Air Act 1981, the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 and the Forest Conservation Act 1980.

The National Green Tribunal was established in 2010 for effective disposal of environmental cases; the polluter pays principle and precautionary principle are recognised in Indian environmental jurisprudence.

India's climate commitments include the Paris Agreement (2015) and the Panchamrit targets announced at COP26 in Glasgow (2021), including net zero by 2070.

Article 46 directs the State to promote the educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and weaker sections and to protect them from injustice and exploitation.

Reservation policy rests on Articles 15(4), 15(5), 16(4) and 16(4A); the Indra Sawhney judgment (1992) upheld 27% OBC reservation and capped total reservation at 50% subject to exceptions.

The 103rd Constitutional Amendment (2019) provided 10% reservation for economically weaker sections, and the 102nd Amendment (2018) gave constitutional status to the National Commission for Backward Classes.

Communalism, casteism, regionalism, linguism, terrorism and naxalism are the major challenges to national integration identified in political science.

Social justice is pursued through affirmative action, welfare schemes, minimum wages, the MGNREGA 2005 and the National Food Security Act 2013.

The National Commission for Scheduled Castes (Article 338) and the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (Article 338A) are constitutional bodies monitoring safeguards.

Democracy requires free and fair elections, rule of law, an independent judiciary, a free press and respect for minority rights to remain substantive rather than merely procedural.