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Maharashtra SSC Pahlavi L2/L3 (MSBSHSE) study materials
Maharashtra SSC Pahlavi L2/L3 (MSBSHSE) study resources

Maharashtra SSC Pahlavi L2/L3 (MSBSHSE) practice questions

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Question 1Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

In the Pahlavi (Book Pahlavi) script, which letter is used to write the consonant /g/ in native Iranian words such as gāh (throne, place)?

  1. The letter used for /w/
  2. The letter used for /y/
  3. The letter that also serves for /k/ Correct answer.
  4. A distinct letter used only for /g/

Explanation

Book Pahlavi is an Aramaic-derived abjad of limited inventory, so one letter shape commonly carries several phonemes. The same sign serves both /k/ and /g/, and the reader disambiguates from context and known vocabulary. This polyvalence is a defining feature of Pahlavi reading at Level 2.

Question 2Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

How is writing direction conventionally handled in Book Pahlavi manuscripts?

  1. Boustrophedon, alternating direction each line
  2. Vertically from top to bottom
  3. Left to right, following the later Persian practice
  4. Right to left, as in the Aramaic script from which it descends Correct answer.

Explanation

Book Pahlavi inherits the right-to-left direction of its Aramaic ancestor, and this is the norm in Zoroastrian manuscript tradition. Later Perso-Arabic writing is also right to left, but that is a separate development. Candidates should remember that direction is a property of the script family, not of the language alone.

Question 3Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

In Pahlavi orthography, a word written with Aramaic letters but read as the Iranian equivalent (for example, a Semitic form read as an Iranian word) is known as what?

  1. A heterogram (ideogram) Correct answer.
  2. A logograph proper to Iranian
  3. A diacritic
  4. A ligature

Explanation

Pahlavi preserves many Aramaic words written in their Semitic spelling but pronounced with the Iranian equivalent; these are called heterograms or ideograms (Aramaic-derived forms read as Iranian). They are conventionally transcribed in capitals. Recognizing them is essential for reading connected Pahlavi text.

Question 4Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Which statement best describes the treatment of vowels in Book Pahlavi writing?

  1. All short and long vowels are written with dedicated letters
  2. Long vowels are sometimes marked with matres lectionis, while short vowels are generally left unmarked Correct answer.
  3. Vowels are marked only by a system of pointing dots
  4. Vowels are written as small superscript signs above consonants

Explanation

Book Pahlavi is essentially consonantal; long vowels may be indicated by certain letters functioning as vowel carriers, but short vowels are usually omitted. Readers supply them from knowledge of the language. This sparse vowel notation is a central difficulty of Pahlavi reading.

Question 5Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

The Avestan script used to write Zoroastrian texts differs from Book Pahlavi chiefly in that it:

  1. Writes vowels fully with distinct letters Correct answer.
  2. Uses only consonants with no vowel indication
  3. Employs heterograms for common verbs
  4. Is written from left to right

Explanation

The Avestan alphabet is a full alphabet in which vowels receive their own distinct letters, making pronunciation far more explicit than in Pahlavi. Book Pahlavi, by contrast, is consonantal with sparse vowel marking. Distinguishing these two scripts is a standard comparison point in Pahlavi study.

Question 6Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A student sees the Pahlavi letters for a word and must decide whether a given sign represents /k/ or /g/. What is the most reliable strategy?

  1. Assume the voiced value whenever the sign appears word-initially
  2. Consult the vowel points written above the sign
  3. Assume the voiceless value in all positions
  4. Use the known Iranian word and its context to select the reading Correct answer.

Explanation

Because one Pahlavi sign can stand for more than one phoneme, the reader resolves ambiguity from the known lexical form and the surrounding syntax. Position alone does not determine voicing. Vowel points are not available to help.

Question 7Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Why do modern editions of Pahlavi texts normally print a transcription alongside the manuscript spelling?

  1. Because transcription converts the text into Avestan
  2. Because the consonantal script is ambiguous and the transcription records the intended pronunciation Correct answer.
  3. Because Pahlavi law requires a Latin rendering
  4. Because the manuscript letters cannot be reproduced in print

Explanation

The sparse notation of Pahlavi leaves many readings underdetermined, so editors supply a transcription that shows vowels and resolves heterograms. This makes the text usable for study and comparison. The practice reflects scholarly convention, not a legal or technical necessity.

Question 8Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

In Pahlavi, the heterogram written with Aramaic letters for 'king' is conventionally transcribed in capitals. What does the capital transcription signal?

  1. That the word belongs to the Avestan corpus
  2. That the word is uncertain and needs review
  3. That the word is a loanword from Greek
  4. That the written form is an Aramaic-derived heterogram read with an Iranian word Correct answer.

Explanation

By convention, capital letters mark heterograms, i.e. Aramaic-derived spellings that were pronounced as the Iranian equivalent. The capitals warn the reader not to pronounce the letters as written. This convention is standard in Pahlavi editions.

Question 9Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A Pahlavi word contains the letter that can represent /y/, /ī/, or a similar glide-vowel value. How should a Level 2 reader approach it?

  1. Always read it as a consonant /y/
  2. Test the glide and long-vowel readings against the known word and its grammar Correct answer.
  3. Ignore the letter entirely as a scribal filler
  4. Always read it as a short /i/

Explanation

Letters such as this one function both as consonants and as vowel carriers, so the reader weighs the possibilities against the lexical item and its morphology. No single fixed value applies in all positions. Ignoring the letter would corrupt the reading.

Question 10Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Which feature most complicates the automatic conversion of a Book Pahlavi manuscript into a modern Persian or Latin transcription?

  1. The large number of distinct letter shapes
  2. The absence of any punctuation
  3. The use of paper rather than parchment
  4. The presence of heterograms and the omission of short vowels Correct answer.

Explanation

Heterograms require lexical substitution, and unwritten short vowels require linguistic inference, so a purely mechanical letter-by-letter conversion fails. Both problems demand knowledge of the language, not just the script. The other options are irrelevant to the conversion task.

Question 11Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

When a Pahlavi scribe writes a word containing the sign for /d/, what does the reader need to know about its possible values?

  1. It represents only a vowel
  2. It may also carry a related value such as /δ/ depending on the word Correct answer.
  3. It is silent in all positions
  4. It always represents /d/ and nothing else

Explanation

As with other Pahlavi letters, the /d/ sign can cover more than one phonetic value, and the correct one is established from the known word. The script's economy of signs forces this contextual reading. Assuming a single fixed value leads to errors.

Question 12Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Which pairing correctly matches a script with its typical use in Zoroastrian textual tradition?

  1. Avestan script for Middle Persian; Book Pahlavi for liturgical Avestan
  2. Book Pahlavi for both Avestan and Middle Persian
  3. Book Pahlavi for Middle Persian compositions; Avestan script for liturgical Avestan Correct answer.
  4. Avestan script for both Avestan and Middle Persian

Explanation

Middle Persian (Pahlavi) literature is written in Book Pahlavi, while the Avestan corpus is written in the Avestan alphabet, which records vowels fully. The two scripts serve different languages and genres. Keeping them apart prevents confusion in reading.

Question 13Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A Pahlavi text writes a common verb using Aramaic letters. What is the correct reading procedure?

  1. Treat it as a proper name
  2. Pronounce the Aramaic letters as written
  3. Read it as an Avestan quotation
  4. Recognize it as a heterogram and substitute the Iranian verb form Correct answer.

Explanation

Frequent verbs are among the most common heterograms; the scribe writes the Aramaic form but the reader supplies the Iranian verb. Pronouncing the Aramaic letters directly would misrepresent the language. Recognizing these forms is a core Level 2 skill.

Question 14Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Which statement about the letter inventory of Book Pahlavi is accurate?

  1. It has no letters for consonants
  2. It has one distinct letter for every phoneme
  3. It has fewer distinct letter shapes than the number of phonemes it must represent Correct answer.
  4. It has more letters than the Avestan alphabet

Explanation

Book Pahlavi uses a relatively small set of letter shapes to cover a larger phonemic inventory, which is why several sounds share a sign. This mismatch is the root of much reading ambiguity. The Avestan alphabet, by contrast, is far richer.

Question 15Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

In editing a Pahlavi inscription, a scholar finds a letter sequence that could be read either as a heterogram or as a genuine Iranian spelling. What principle should guide the decision?

  1. Choose the Iranian reading whenever both are possible
  2. Compare with parallel attestations and the grammatical context of the passage Correct answer.
  3. Prefer whichever reading is shorter
  4. Choose the heterogram reading whenever both are possible

Explanation

Ambiguity between a heterogram and a phonetic spelling is resolved by external evidence: parallel texts, known formulas, and grammatical fit. Neither reading can be preferred by default. Length is not a criterion in such decisions.

Question 16Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Why is the Pahlavi letter that can represent both a stop and its corresponding fricative sometimes described as covering a 'phonetic range'?

  1. Because the sign changes shape according to the vowel
  2. Because a single sign may stand for several related sounds resolved by context Correct answer.
  3. Because the sign is borrowed from Greek
  4. Because the sign is written differently in inscriptions and manuscripts

Explanation

The description reflects the script's economy: one letter shape covers a set of related sounds, and the reader selects the value from the word. Shape does not vary by vowel, and the sign is not Greek in origin. This concept underlies much of Pahlavi reading practice.

Question 17Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A student transcribes a Pahlavi passage and inserts short vowels wherever the text seems to require them, without marking them as editorial. What is the methodological problem?

  1. There is no problem, since all vowels are written in Pahlavi
  2. Editorial vowel supplements must be distinguished from what the manuscript actually writes Correct answer.
  3. Transcription must always use Avestan letters
  4. Short vowels should never be supplied in any edition

Explanation

Because the manuscript does not write short vowels, any supplied vowels are editorial and must be signalled so readers know what is attested versus inferred. Silent supplementation blurs the boundary between evidence and interpretation. This is a basic principle of sound philological practice.

Question 18Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Which observation best supports the conclusion that Book Pahlavi orthography preserves historical spellings rather than purely phonetic ones?

  1. Vowels are written in full
  2. Every letter corresponds to a modern spoken sound
  3. Words retain letters no longer pronounced, and heterograms keep Aramaic forms Correct answer.
  4. The script was invented in the Islamic period

Explanation

Historical spellings survive as unpronounced letters and as Aramaic heterograms retained long after the spoken language changed. Both point to a conservative orthographic tradition. A purely phonetic script would show neither feature.

Question 19Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Which of these is the standard term for the Pahlavi practice of writing an Aramaic word but reading its Iranian equivalent?

  1. Nirang
  2. Huzvarishn Correct answer.
  3. Pazand
  4. Avesta

Explanation

Huzvarishn is the traditional designation for the heterogram phenomenon in Pahlavi, covering both the written Aramaic form and its Iranian reading. The other terms refer to different things in Zoroastrian textual study. Knowing the terminology helps in reading scholarly editions.

Question 20Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

In Pahlavi manuscripts, words are frequently written without spaces between them. What practical consequence does this have for a reader?

  1. Each letter must be read as a separate word
  2. Word boundaries must be inferred from known forms and grammar Correct answer.
  3. Spaces are replaced by vowel points
  4. The text cannot be read at all

Explanation

Continuous writing means the reader segments the stream into words using vocabulary and syntax. This is a normal skill in reading Pahlavi and related scripts. It does not make the text unreadable, nor does it turn letters into words.

Question 21Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Which letter in Pahlavi is commonly used as a mater lectionis to indicate a long vowel?

  1. The letter used for /w/, which can mark long /ū/ or /ō/ Correct answer.
  2. The letter used for /b/
  3. The letter used for /t/
  4. The letter used for /n/

Explanation

Certain consonantal letters double as vowel carriers; the /w/ letter in particular can indicate long back vowels. This is how the script partially compensates for its sparse vowel notation. The other letters listed do not serve this function.

Question 22Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A candidate comparing an inscriptional Middle Persian text with a later book manuscript notices differences in letter forms. What is the best explanation?

  1. The two texts are written in unrelated scripts
  2. Different hands and periods produce different letter shapes within the same script tradition Correct answer.
  3. The later manuscript uses the Avestan alphabet
  4. The inscription omits all consonants

Explanation

Inscriptional and book hands differ in style and date while belonging to the same Pahlavi tradition. Variation in letter form is therefore expected. It does not imply a change of script or language.

Question 23Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Why is knowledge of Middle Persian vocabulary indispensable for reading Book Pahlavi, even at an elementary level?

  1. Because the script underdetermines pronunciation and meaning, which vocabulary resolves Correct answer.
  2. Because the script is alphabetic and fully phonetic
  3. Because the script writes only numbers
  4. Because all words are written as heterograms

Explanation

With polyvalent letters, unwritten vowels, and heterograms, the script alone does not fix a reading; lexical knowledge does most of the work. This is why Pahlavi is learned together with the language. The other options misdescribe the script.

Question 24Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Which of the following best characterizes the relationship between Pahlavi script and the Aramaic script?

  1. Pahlavi is unrelated to Aramaic and only borrows vocabulary
  2. Pahlavi descends from the Avestan alphabet
  3. Pahlavi descends from an Aramaic script and retains Aramaic spellings in heterograms Correct answer.
  4. Pahlavi descends from Greek

Explanation

Pahlavi's letter shapes and its heterogram practice both point to an Aramaic origin. The script was adapted to Iranian usage while preserving Aramaic written forms. This dual heritage explains many of its peculiarities.

Question 25Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A scholar finds two editions of the same Pahlavi passage that differ in whether a certain word is a heterogram. What further evidence would most directly settle the question?

  1. The number of lines on the page
  2. The physical size of the manuscript
  3. Parallel passages and formulaic parallels in other Pahlavi texts Correct answer.
  4. The colour of the ink used

Explanation

Readings are settled by comparing parallel attestations and fixed formulas that show how the word behaves elsewhere. Codicological details such as ink or line count do not determine a linguistic reading. This is standard philological method.

Question 26Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A Level 2 candidate must identify the direction in which Book Pahlavi is written on a manuscript page. What is the correct reading direction?

  1. Vertically from top to bottom
  2. Right to left Correct answer.
  3. Left to right
  4. Boustrophedon, alternating each line

Explanation

Book Pahlavi continues the Aramaic-derived practice of writing from right to left, so the reader begins at the right margin of each line. Left-to-right order belongs to scripts such as Greek or Latin, not to the Iranian Pahlavi tradition. Recognising this direction is a basic step before letter identification can begin.

Question 27Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

In the Pahlavi abjad, which category of sounds is systematically represented by letters while short vowels are normally left unwritten?

  1. Short vowels
  2. Stress accents
  3. Consonants Correct answer.
  4. Pitch tones

Explanation

Pahlavi is an abjad: its letters stand primarily for consonants, and the short vowels are generally omitted from the written form. Long vowels may be indicated by certain letters used as matres lectionis. Stress and pitch are not marked by separate signs in this script.

Question 28Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A manuscript shows a small cluster of strokes above a letter, distinct from the letter shapes themselves. In Pahlavi scribal practice, what is the usual function of such diacritic marks?

  1. To show that the scribe made an error
  2. To indicate that the word is a heterogram
  3. To mark the beginning of a new paragraph
  4. To distinguish letters or values that the base shapes leave ambiguous Correct answer.

Explanation

Because several Pahlavi letters share similar shapes, scribes added small diacritic strokes to disambiguate particular letters or readings. These marks belong to the reading system rather than to paragraphing or error correction. Heterograms are identified by their Aramaic spelling, not by such diacritics.

Question 29Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A student encounters the Pahlavi term 'huzwārišn'. To which phenomenon does this term refer?

  1. The translation of Pahlavi into New Persian
  2. The copying of manuscripts by a scribe
  3. The use of Aramaic heterograms in Pahlavi writing Correct answer.
  4. The recitation of the Avesta in a ritual context

Explanation

Huzwārišn is the traditional designation for the Aramaic words written in Pahlavi but read with their Iranian equivalents. It is a central concept for anyone reading Book Pahlavi, since these heterograms appear throughout the texts. The other options describe unrelated activities of ritual, copying, or translation.

Question 30Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Which Pahlavi letter is conventionally described as a mater lectionis because it can indicate a long vowel rather than only a consonant?

  1. Pē
  2. Wāw Correct answer.
  3. Gīmel
  4. Bēth

Explanation

Wāw functions both as a consonant and as a sign for long vowels such as ō and ū, which is the classic mater lectionis role inherited from Aramaic. The other letters listed are consonantal signs without this vowel-indicating function. Recognising wāw's dual role is essential for correct reading.

Question 31Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A candidate is asked to name the script family from which the Pahlavi writing system ultimately descends. Which answer is correct?

  1. Aramaic Correct answer.
  2. Brahmi
  3. Greek
  4. Cuneiform

Explanation

Pahlavi derives from an Aramaic script, which explains both its right-to-left direction and its heterographic practices. Greek, Brahmi, and cuneiform belong to separate script traditions with different origins. This descent is the foundation for understanding the script's structure.

Question 32Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

In the standard transliteration of Pahlavi letters, why are some letters rendered with capital letters such as K or M?

  1. To mark a word as loanword from Greek
  2. To show that the letter is stressed in recitation
  3. To indicate that the letter is silent
  4. To signal that the letter is being transliterated, not phonetically transcribed Correct answer.

Explanation

Transliteration reproduces the written letters, and capitals are conventionally used for the Aramaic-letter values of heterograms so that they are not confused with the Iranian reading. This is a notational convention, not a statement about stress, borrowing, or silence. Distinguishing transliteration from transcription is a core skill.

Question 33Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A beginner wants to know which type of Pahlavi is most commonly studied from the Zoroastrian book manuscripts. Which designation applies?

  1. Inscriptional Pahlavi
  2. Psalter Pahlavi
  3. Parthian Pahlavi
  4. Book Pahlavi Correct answer.

Explanation

Book Pahlavi is the cursive script of the later Zoroastrian manuscripts and is the form most often taught as standard Pahlavi. Inscriptional and Psalter Pahlavi are distinct varieties with their own letter forms and uses. Parthian is a separate Iranian language, not a variety of Pahlavi.

Question 34Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A student sees the sequence of Pahlavi letters transliterated as 'MLK'ā and must supply the Iranian reading. What is the correct reading?

  1. šāh, 'king' Correct answer.
  2. gētīg, 'world'
  3. xwadāy, 'lord'
  4. dēn, 'religion'

Explanation

MLK' is the Aramaic heterogram for 'king', read in Middle Persian as šāh. The other options are genuine Middle Persian words but correspond to different heterograms or to no heterogram at all. The reader must know the Iranian equivalent, not merely transliterate the Aramaic letters.

Question 35Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A passage writes a verb with Aramaic letters, and the student must decide how to read it aloud. What is the correct procedure in standard Pahlavi reading?

  1. Translate the whole sentence into New Persian first
  2. Recognise the heterogram and substitute the appropriate Iranian verb form Correct answer.
  3. Pronounce the letters as a string of consonants with no vowels
  4. Read the Aramaic letters with their Aramaic pronunciation

Explanation

Heterograms are written in Aramaic but read as their Middle Persian equivalents, so the reader identifies the Aramaic word and substitutes the Iranian verb. Reading the Aramaic pronunciation aloud would be incorrect for the Iranian text. Neither consonant-string recitation nor prior New Persian translation is the standard procedure.

Question 36Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

Two letters in a Book Pahlavi word look nearly identical, and the context does not immediately settle the reading. What is the most reliable strategy for the candidate?

  1. Read whichever letter makes the sentence shorter
  2. Assume the rarer of the two letters is intended
  3. Ignore the letters and guess from the preceding word
  4. Use the known Middle Persian word and its expected spelling to decide Correct answer.

Explanation

Because Book Pahlavi letter shapes overlap, the reader resolves ambiguity by matching the sequence to a known Middle Persian lexeme and its conventional spelling. Guessing by rarity, brevity, or context alone is unreliable. Lexical knowledge is therefore inseparable from letter recognition.

Question 37Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A scribe writes a word using letters that spell an Aramaic form, but the surrounding text is Iranian. What does this indicate about the word's status?

  1. It is a Greek loanword left untranslated
  2. It is a scribal error to be emended
  3. It is a heterogram to be read with its Iranian equivalent Correct answer.
  4. It is a proper name of Aramaic origin

Explanation

An Aramaic-spelled word embedded in Iranian text is the defining pattern of a heterogram, read with its Middle Persian equivalent. Loanwords, proper names, and errors are possible in principle but are not identified by this pattern alone. The context of Iranian syntax is what signals the heterographic reading.

Question 38Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A candidate must explain why Pahlavi transcription and transliteration are kept separate in scholarly editions. What is the main reason?

  1. Transliteration applies only to heterograms
  2. Transliteration records written letters, while transcription records the presumed pronunciation Correct answer.
  3. Transcription is a modern invention with no manuscript basis
  4. Transliteration is used only for inscriptions and transcription only for books

Explanation

Transliteration represents the letters actually written, whereas transcription represents how the text is believed to have been pronounced. The two levels answer different questions and are therefore printed separately. The distinction is not tied to inscription versus book, nor is transcription baseless.

Question 39Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A student reads a Pahlavi text in which the same Iranian word appears once spelled with a heterogram and once spelled phonetically. What does this variation most likely reflect?

  1. Free variation in scribal practice within the tradition Correct answer.
  2. A change of language from Middle Persian to Parthian
  3. An error that must be corrected in one instance
  4. A difference between prose and poetry

Explanation

Scribes could write a given word either heterographically or phonetically, and both spellings occur in the same text. This is a recognised feature of the tradition rather than a language switch, an error, or a genre marker. Editors therefore record the variation instead of emending it away.

Question 40Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A Pahlavi manuscript writes a word with the letters for a stop, and the reader must decide whether a fricative value is intended. What generally guides the decision?

  1. The colour of the ink used by the scribe
  2. The number of letters in the word
  3. The position of the word at the start of a line
  4. The phonological context and known Middle Persian form of the word Correct answer.

Explanation

Pahlavi letters for stops can also stand for the corresponding fricatives, and the correct value is determined by the word's known phonology and its Middle Persian form. Letter count, line position, and ink colour are irrelevant to the phonetic reading. This is why lexical and phonological knowledge must accompany letter recognition.

Question 41Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A candidate is asked to identify the Aramaic letter used as the heterogram for 'land' or 'earth' in Pahlavi. Which transliteration corresponds to this heterogram?

  1. ŠMʾ
  2. BBA
  3. MLKʾ
  4. ʾrḥʾ Correct answer.

Explanation

The heterogram written ʾrḥʾ corresponds to the Iranian word for 'land, earth'. MLKʾ is the heterogram for 'king', BBA for 'gate' or 'door', and ŠMʾ for 'name'. Matching Aramaic letter sequences to their Iranian readings is a standard Level 2 skill.

Question 42Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A student is told that a certain Pahlavi letter can represent both a voiced and a voiceless consonant depending on context. Which letter is most commonly described in this way?

  1. The letter transliterated as n
  2. The letter transliterated as r
  3. The letter transliterated as g/k Correct answer.
  4. The letter transliterated as b

Explanation

The sign written g in transliteration can stand for either the voiced velar stop or its voiceless counterpart, with the value fixed by the word's known form. The letters b, n, and r do not carry this particular voiced/voiceless overlap. Recognising such polyvalent signs is central to reading Book Pahlavi.

Question 43Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A candidate must explain why Book Pahlavi is often described as having a small and ambiguous letter inventory. Which statement best captures the reason?

  1. Vowels are written more fully than in Avestan
  2. Several distinct sounds share closely similar letter shapes, so one sign may cover more than one value Correct answer.
  3. The script has fewer than ten letters in total
  4. The letters change shape completely from line to line

Explanation

Book Pahlavi's cursive forms merge letters that were distinct in earlier scripts, so a single shape can represent several sounds. The inventory is small and ambiguous for this reason, not because it has fewer than ten letters or shifts shape line by line. Vowels are in fact written less fully than in scripts that mark them.

Question 44Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A Pahlavi text contains the heterogram YMRRWN, and the candidate must give its Iranian reading. Which is correct?

  1. The verb 'to say' Correct answer.
  2. The noun 'water'
  3. The verb 'to go'
  4. The noun 'horse'

Explanation

YMRRWN is the Aramaic-derived heterogram read as the Middle Persian verb 'to say'. The words for 'horse', 'water', and 'to go' are written with different heterograms or spellings. Correctly pairing each heterogram with its Iranian verb or noun is a key reading skill.

Question 45Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A student notices that the same Pahlavi letter is transliterated differently in two scholarly editions of one text. What is the most reasonable explanation?

  1. The two editions describe different languages
  2. The editions follow different transliteration conventions for the same ambiguous sign Correct answer.
  3. The letter changed value between the two editions
  4. One edition has misread the manuscript entirely

Explanation

Scholars may adopt different conventions for rendering an ambiguous Pahlavi sign, so the same letter can appear with different transliterations. This reflects editorial convention rather than wholesale misreading, a change in the letter's value, or a difference of language. Comparing editions requires attention to their stated conventions.

Question 46Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A candidate must identify which sign in Pahlavi commonly serves to indicate the long vowel ā when used as a mater lectionis. Which letter is meant?

  1. n
  2. ʾ (aleph) Correct answer.
  3. r
  4. b

Explanation

Aleph is frequently used in Pahlavi to indicate the long vowel ā, continuing its Aramaic function as a vowel letter. The letters b, n, and r are consonantal signs without this role. Recognising aleph's vowel-indicating use is important for reading words whose short vowels are unwritten.

Question 47Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A scholar compares an inscriptional Middle Persian word with its Book Pahlavi counterpart and finds that the inscriptional form distinguishes letters that the book form merges. What does this comparison best illustrate?

  1. That the inscriptions are later than the manuscripts
  2. That the inscriptions are written in a different language
  3. The historical development of the script toward a more cursive and ambiguous form Correct answer.
  4. That Book Pahlavi invented new letters not found in inscriptions

Explanation

Inscriptional Middle Persian preserves letter distinctions that the later cursive Book Pahlavi merges, illustrating the script's historical development toward ambiguity. The comparison does not indicate a different language, invented letters, or a later date for the inscriptions. Such evidence helps explain why Book Pahlavi requires lexical knowledge.

Question 48Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A candidate must explain why a purely mechanical letter-by-letter conversion of Book Pahlavi into Latin script fails to produce a readable text. What is the central reason?

  1. The manuscripts contain no word divisions at all
  2. The letters are written in a cipher known only to priests
  3. Heterograms and merged letter shapes require lexical and phonological interpretation, not mere substitution Correct answer.
  4. The script has no fixed direction of writing

Explanation

A mechanical substitution cannot handle heterograms, which must be replaced by Iranian readings, nor merged shapes, whose values depend on the known word. Direction of writing is fixed, the script is not a secret cipher, and although word division is often unclear, that is not the central obstacle. Interpretation at the lexical level is what a converter lacks.

Question 49Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A student must decide whether a given Aramaic-letter sequence in a Pahlavi text functions as a heterogram or as an ordinary Iranian word written phonetically. Which consideration is most decisive?

  1. Whether the sequence corresponds to a known Aramaic lexeme with an established Iranian equivalent Correct answer.
  2. Whether the scribe wrote the sequence in larger characters
  3. Whether the sequence contains more than three letters
  4. Whether the word occurs at the beginning of a sentence

Explanation

The decisive test is whether the sequence matches a known Aramaic word that has an established Iranian reading in the tradition. Length, sentence position, and character size are not reliable criteria. This is why a working knowledge of the heterographic lexicon is indispensable for the reader.

Question 50Pahlavi language - script, reading and writing (Level 2/Level 3)

A candidate is asked why knowledge of Middle Persian vocabulary is indispensable even for elementary reading of Book Pahlavi. Which explanation is most accurate?

  1. Because the script writes every vowel explicitly, making vocabulary unnecessary
  2. Because unwritten vowels and polyvalent signs mean the word must be recognised from its consonantal skeleton Correct answer.
  3. Because all Pahlavi words are Aramaic and must be translated
  4. Because the letters change meaning in every manuscript

Explanation

Since short vowels are omitted and several signs are polyvalent, the reader identifies a word from its consonantal outline using knowledge of Middle Persian vocabulary. The script does not write every vowel, nor are all words Aramaic, nor do letters change meaning between manuscripts. Lexical knowledge compensates for what the script leaves unsaid.