PSEB Matric Social Science key terms

The Sun and all bodies bound to it by gravity, including eight planets, dwarf planets, moons, asteroids and comets. Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only one known to support life.

The spinning of Earth on its own axis from west to east, taking about 24 hours for one turn. It causes day and night and makes the Sun appear to move across the sky.

The movement of Earth around the Sun in an elliptical orbit, completed in about 365 days and 6 hours. Combined with the tilt of the axis, it produces the cycle of seasons.

The angular distance of a place north or south of the Equator, measured in degrees from 0 at the Equator to 90 at the poles. Lines of latitude run parallel to each other.

The angular distance of a place east or west of the Prime Meridian at Greenwich, measured from 0 to 180 degrees. Lines of longitude are not parallel and meet at the poles.

The line of longitude passing through Greenwich, near London, fixed at 0 degrees. Longitudes east and west of it are measured from this line, and it sets the base for standard time zones.

The line of latitude about 23.5 degrees north of the Equator. The Sun is directly overhead there at the June solstice, and it marks the northern limit of the tropics.

Either of the two days each year when the Sun reaches its greatest distance north or south of the Equator, around 21 June and 22 December. These days have the longest and shortest daylight hours.

A seasonal reversal of wind direction that brings a marked wet season and dry season. In South Asia the summer monsoon blows from the sea and delivers most of the region's annual rainfall.

Water that falls from clouds to the ground as rain, measured in millimetres by a rain gauge. Its amount and timing strongly influence farming and water supply in Pakistan.

The artificial supply of water to farmland through canals, tube wells, tanks or channels. It allows crops to grow where rainfall is low or unreliable, as in much of Punjab and Sindh.

A network of man-made channels that carries river water to fields for irrigation. The Indus Basin canal network is among the largest in the world and supports much of Pakistan's agriculture.

The major river of Pakistan, rising in Tibet and flowing through the Himalayas, Punjab and Sindh to the Arabian Sea. It is the lifeline of the country's irrigation and agriculture.

An official count of all people in a country, recording details such as age, sex and occupation at a particular time. Pakistan's census results are used to plan services and allocate resources.

The average number of people living in a unit of area, usually persons per square kilometre. It is found by dividing total population by total land area.

The growing share of a country's population living in towns and cities. It results from rural-to-urban migration and natural growth, and it increases demand for housing, jobs and services.

The movement of people from one place to another to settle, either within a country or across borders. People move for work, education, marriage, safety or better living conditions.

The percentage of a population aged 10 or above, in Pakistani measurement, who can read and write with understanding. It is used as a key indicator of educational development.

The total money value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a year. It is the most common measure of the size and growth of an economy.

A sustained rise in the general level of prices of goods and services, which reduces the purchasing power of money. It is usually measured by changes in the consumer price index.

A government's annual statement of planned income and expenditure, presented to the legislature for approval. It shows how taxes will be raised and how public money will be spent.

The system by which a government collects compulsory payments from individuals and businesses to fund public services. Taxes may be direct, such as income tax, or indirect, such as sales tax.

The fundamental set of rules that establishes a state's institutions, distributes powers and guarantees citizens' rights. All other laws must be consistent with it.

A system of government in which power is shared between a central government and provincial or state governments, each with its own defined authority. Pakistan's 1973 Constitution establishes such a system.

Basic freedoms and protections guaranteed to every citizen by the constitution, such as equality before law, freedom of speech and security of person. Courts can enforce them if violated.

The branch of government made up of courts and judges that interprets laws and decides legal disputes. It protects the constitution and citizens' rights and is expected to act independently.

The branch of government that makes laws, such as the Parliament of Pakistan consisting of the President and two houses. It also approves the budget and oversees the executive.

The government of a province, headed by a Chief Minister and answerable to the provincial assembly. It handles subjects assigned to provinces under the constitution, such as health and education.

A system of elected councils at district, tehsil or union level that manages local affairs such as sanitation, roads and schools. It brings administration closer to citizens.

The voluntary organisations and groups outside government and business, such as NGOs, unions, welfare bodies and professional associations. They raise public issues and provide services to communities.

The principle that everyone, including rulers and officials, is subject to the law and accountable before the courts. It requires fair laws applied equally and without arbitrary action.

One of the world's earliest urban civilisations, flourishing around 2500 BCE in the Indus region, with major sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. It is known for planned cities, drainage and seals.

A major city of the Indus Valley Civilisation in present-day Sindh, famous for its grid streets, brick houses, covered drains and the Great Bath. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

An ancient Indus Valley city in present-day Punjab, Pakistan, first excavated in the 1920s. Its discoveries revealed the existence of a planned urban civilisation along the Indus.

A grouping of states formed during the Cold War that refused to join either the Western or Soviet bloc. Pakistan's neighbour India was a founding member, and the movement promotes independence in foreign policy.

The prolonged political and military rivalry after the Second World War between the United States and the Soviet Union and their allies, without direct large-scale war. It shaped global alliances and regional conflicts.

A country's set of principles and actions in dealing with other states, covering diplomacy, trade, security and alliances. It aims to protect national interests and promote cooperation abroad.

An international organisation founded in 1945 to maintain peace and security and promote cooperation among states. Its main bodies include the General Assembly and the Security Council.

The basic entitlements belonging to every person regardless of nationality, religion or status, such as life, liberty and freedom from torture. They are set out in international declarations and treaties.