PSEB SS Political Science key terms

The supreme and independent authority of a state to make and enforce laws within its territory without outside interference. It distinguishes a state from other organisations such as associations or provinces.

A political community occupying a defined territory, with a permanent population, an effective government, and the capacity to enter relations with other states. It exercises sovereign authority over its people.

The set of institutions and officials that make, interpret, and enforce public decisions for a political community. It is the machinery through which a state exercises its authority and delivers services.

The branch of government that debates, amends, and passes laws, represents citizens, and controls public finance. It may be unicameral or bicameral and is usually elected by the people.

The branch of government that formulates policy, implements laws, and conducts foreign affairs. It includes the political leadership, such as a president or cabinet, and the permanent civil service.

The branch of government that settles disputes, interprets the constitution and laws, and reviews the legality of official action. Its independence is essential to the rule of law.

The principle that everyone, including rulers and officials, is subject to the same known laws, applied fairly by independent courts. It contrasts with arbitrary personal rule or rule by decree.

The fundamental set of rules establishing the main institutions of a state, distributing powers among them, and defining citizens' rights and duties. It may be written or unwritten, rigid or flexible.

The power of courts to examine laws and official actions and declare them invalid if they violate the constitution. It is a key safeguard of constitutional supremacy and limited government.

A system of government in which political authority derives from the consent of the people, expressed through free and fair elections, and in which rights and accountability constrain rulers.

The right of every adult citizen to vote regardless of sex, wealth, caste, religion, or literacy. It is a defining feature of modern representative democracy and a result of long political struggles.

A formal process in which citizens choose representatives or decide an issue by casting votes under rules that are periodic, competitive, and free. It is the main mechanism linking people to government.

A defined geographical area whose voters elect one or more representatives to a legislature. Its boundaries are periodically revised to reflect population changes and to keep representation broadly equal.

The official register of persons entitled to vote in a constituency. Its accuracy and updating are essential for free and fair elections and for preventing fraudulent voting.

An electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes in a constituency wins, even without an absolute majority. It usually produces single-party governments but can distort seats relative to votes.

An electoral system that allocates seats to parties roughly in proportion to the votes they receive, often using party lists or multi-member constituencies. It tends to favour multi-party politics and coalition government.

An organised group that seeks to win public office and influence policy by contesting elections, mobilising support, and presenting a programme. Parties aggregate interests and link citizens to government.

An alliance of two or more parties that agree to share power and govern together, usually because no single party commands a legislative majority. Coalitions require negotiation and compromise over policy.

A system in which power is constitutionally divided between a central government and regional units, each supreme in its own sphere. It typically involves a written constitution and a dispute-settling court.

A form of state organisation in which a single central government holds supreme authority, and regional bodies, if any, exist only at its discretion. Most countries in the world use this arrangement.

The transfer of powers, functions, and resources from central government to elected local bodies. It aims to bring decision-making closer to citizens and improve accountability and participation.

The system of elected local self-government in rural India, established through constitutional amendment to give villages and districts control over local development and administration.

The doctrine that legislative, executive, and judicial powers should be exercised by distinct bodies that check one another, preventing concentration and abuse of authority. It underlies many constitutional designs.

Basic entitlements guaranteed by a constitution, such as equality, freedom of speech, and protection of life, which the state must respect and courts can enforce. They limit government power over individuals.

Guidelines in a constitution that direct governments to pursue social and economic welfare goals, such as employment, education, and health. They are not directly enforceable in courts but guide lawmaking.

An ideology and sentiment that identifies a people as a nation sharing culture, history, or territory and claims self-government for it. It can unite communities but also fuel exclusion and conflict.

The principle that the state treats all religions equally, neither privileging nor persecuting any, and keeps public authority separate from religious doctrine. Its meaning varies across constitutional traditions.

The freedom of individuals to act, think, and express themselves without unjustified interference, subject to limits that protect others' rights and public order. It is a core value of liberal political thought.

The principle that all persons have equal moral worth and should be treated alike by the law, with special measures permitted to remedy historical disadvantage. It opposes arbitrary discrimination.

The fair distribution of benefits, opportunities, and burdens in society, especially for disadvantaged groups. It justifies welfare policies, reservations, and protections against exploitation.

The range of views and attitudes that citizens hold on political issues and leaders. It is shaped by media, education, and discussion and influences government through elections and pressure.

Newspapers, television, radio, and digital platforms that circulate news and commentary to large audiences. Their independence and fairness strongly affect public debate and accountability.

The sphere of voluntary associations, non-governmental organisations, unions, and social movements that organise citizens outside the state and the market. It channels demands and checks government power.

The permanent body of salaried officials who implement policy, administer programmes, and advise political leaders. Its rules-based hierarchy gives continuity but can breed rigidity and red tape.

A draft law presented to a legislature for debate, amendment, and approval. Once passed and formally assented to, it becomes an act or statute binding on those it covers.

Entitlements that belong to every person simply by virtue of being human, such as life, liberty, and freedom from torture. They are protected in national constitutions and international treaties.

The growing interconnection of economies and societies through trade, investment, migration, and communication. It creates opportunities and pressures that shape national politics and policy choices.

The prolonged rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and their allies after the Second World War, marked by ideological conflict, arms competition, and proxy wars rather than direct fighting.

A foreign policy stance of not joining either major Cold War bloc while pursuing independent positions and cooperation among developing countries. It emphasised sovereignty and peaceful coexistence.