RBSE Sec Voc Food Processing cheat sheet

Macronutrients supply energy: carbohydrate 4 kcal/g, protein 4 kcal/g, fat 9 kcal/g, alcohol 7 kcal/g; dietary fibre contributes roughly 2 kcal/g.

Water activity (aw) is the ratio of vapour pressure of food to that of pure water at the same temperature; pure water aw = 1.00, most bacteria need aw above 0.90, xerophilic moulds grow down to about 0.65.

Proximate analysis sequence: moisture (oven drying), ash (muffle furnace 550 °C), crude fat (solvent extraction), crude protein (Kjeldahl, N × 6.25), crude fibre, nitrogen-free extract by difference.

Protein quality measures: PER (rat growth), PDCAAS (truncated at 1.0), DIAAS (ileal digestibility, can exceed 1.0); limiting amino acid in cereals is lysine, in pulses methionine.

Maillard browning requires a reducing sugar plus an amino group; it is favoured by heat, alkaline pH and intermediate moisture, and is suppressed by low aw and acid pH.

Vitamin loss rules: thiamine and vitamin C are heat-labile and water-soluble; riboflavin is light-sensitive; fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, K are sensitive to oxidation and rancidity.

Starch gelatinisation begins near 60–70 °C with granule swelling and amylose leaching; on cooling, amylose retrogrades, causing staling of bread and syneresis in gels.

Glycaemic index ranks carbohydrate foods by 2-hour blood glucose response relative to a reference (glucose = 100); low GI is 55 or below, high GI is 70 or above.

Emulsion types: oil-in-water (milk, mayonnaise) stabilised by proteins; water-in-oil (butter, margarine) stabilised by fat crystals; amphiphilic emulsifiers lower interfacial tension.

Bacterial growth phases: lag, log (exponential), stationary, death; generation time varies from about 20 minutes for fast spoilage organisms to hours for pathogens under refrigeration.

Intrinsic factors controlling growth: pH, aw, redox potential, nutrient content, antimicrobial constituents; extrinsic factors: temperature, relative humidity, gas atmosphere, competing flora.

Clostridium botulinum is an anaerobic spore-former; its toxin is destroyed at 80 °C for 10 minutes, but spores require 121 °C (F0 = 12D at 121.1 °C) for low-acid canned foods.

Staphylococcus aureus grows at aw down to 0.86 and produces heat-stable enterotoxin; the toxin survives boiling, so reheating does not make the food safe.

Salmonella is controlled by thorough cooking (72 °C core) and hygiene; Listeria monocytogenes grows at refrigeration temperature and is a special risk for ready-to-eat chilled foods.

Mycotoxins: aflatoxin (Aspergillus flavus in groundnuts, maize) is hepatotoxic and regulated; ochratoxin A in cereals and grapes; patulin in apples; fumonisin in maize.

HACCP has seven principles: hazard analysis, CCP determination, critical limits, monitoring, corrective actions, verification, record keeping; prerequisite programmes precede the plan.

Food-borne illness classification: infection (viable cells colonise, e.g. Salmonella), intoxication (preformed toxin, e.g. S. aureus), toxicoinfection (spores germinate in gut, e.g. Clostridium perfringens).

Indicator organisms: coliforms and E. coli indicate faecal contamination; aerobic plate count indicates overall hygiene and spoilage potential, not pathogen presence.

Material balance: input mass = output mass + losses; energy balance: heat supplied = sensible heat (m·Cp·ΔT) + latent heat (m·L) + losses.

Heat transfer modes: conduction q = kAΔT/x; convection q = hAΔT; radiation q = εσA(T⁴); the controlling resistance governs the overall rate.

Drying rate curve: constant-rate period (surface evaporation, controlled by external conditions) then falling-rate period (internal diffusion controls); critical moisture content marks the transition.

Size reduction laws: Rittinger (energy ∝ new surface), Kick (energy ∝ size ratio), Bond (work index, used for mills); screening expresses particle size as mesh number.

Separation operations: filtration (cake and cloth resistance), centrifugation (settling velocity depends on particle size and density difference), membrane processes classified by pore size - MF > UF > NF > RO.

Mixing indices and residence time distribution describe mixer and continuous-flow performance; RTD spread indicates plug flow (narrow) versus mixed flow (broad).

Thermal process calculation: D-value is time for 90 % reduction; z-value is temperature change for 10-fold D change; F-value is equivalent time at a reference temperature.

Refrigeration cycle: compressor, condenser, expansion valve, evaporator; coefficient of performance COP = refrigeration effect / work input; freezing point depression follows Raoult's law.

Evaporation economy = kg water evaporated per kg steam; multiple-effect evaporators reuse vapour, raising economy roughly in proportion to the number of effects.

Thermal preservation: blanching (enzyme inactivation, 70–95 °C), pasteurisation (typically below 100 °C), commercial sterilisation (above 100 °C, UHT 135–150 °C for 2–5 s).

Canning: 12D concept for C. botulinum; low-acid foods (pH above 4.6) need pressure processing; acid foods (pH 4.6 or below) can be hot-filled or boiling-water processed.

Chilling slows but does not stop microbial growth; freezing below −18 °C stops growth, and quick freezing gives smaller ice crystals and less drip loss on thawing.

Drying methods: sun, hot-air (tray, tunnel), drum, spray (for liquids to powder), freeze-drying (lyophilisation, sublimation under vacuum, best nutrient retention), osmotic dehydration.

Irradiation doses: low dose (up to 1 kGy) for sprout inhibition and insect disinfestation; medium (1–10 kGy) for pathogen reduction; high (above 10 kGy) for sterilisation.

Chemical preservation: salt and sugar lower aw; organic acids lower pH; nitrite in cured meats inhibits C. botulinum and fixes colour; sulphites prevent browning; sorbate and benzoate inhibit moulds and yeasts.

Non-thermal methods: high-pressure processing (400–600 MPa), pulsed electric field, cold plasma, ultrasound, modified atmosphere packaging (low O2, elevated CO2).

Hurdle technology combines sub-lethal preservative factors (low pH, low aw, chill, preservatives) so no single factor must be severe, improving sensory quality.

Packaging functions: containment, protection, preservation, communication; vacuum and MAP remove or replace oxygen; aseptic packaging fills sterilised product into sterile packages.

Value addition routes: primary (cleaning, grading, milling), secondary (processing into flour, oil, juice, pulp), tertiary (ready-to-eat, fortified, branded products).

Dairy products: pasteurised milk, curd/yoghurt (Lactobacillus fermentation), paneer (acid coagulation), ghee (clarified butter), khoa, ice cream (overrun = volume increase from air).

Cereal products: milling yield = product weight / grain weight; parboiling of paddy improves milling recovery and retention of B vitamins; extrusion cooking produces snacks and fortified blends.

Pulse and oilseed processing: dal milling, dehulling losses, expeller versus solvent extraction of oil, refining steps (degumming, neutralisation, bleaching, deodorisation).

Fruit and vegetable products: jam, jelly, marmalade, squash, cordial, pickle, chutney, ketchup; pectin gel formation needs sugar, acid (pH about 3.0–3.5) and pectin.

TSS (total soluble solids) measured in °Brix governs product standards, e.g. jam commonly 68–69 °Brix, squash about 25 % juice with 40–45 °Brix.

Bakery products: flour strength (gluten), fermentation by yeast producing CO2, proofing, baking; biscuit dough uses low-protein flour and fat to limit gluten development.

Meat, fish and poultry: rigor mortis, ageing for tenderness, curing and smoking, canning, freezing; fish spoilage accelerates with trimethylamine formation.

By-product utilisation: whey to whey protein concentrate, oilcake to animal feed, fruit peel to pectin and essential oil, molasses to alcohol and yeast.

Quality attributes: sensory (appearance, texture, flavour), nutritional, safety, convenience, shelf life; objective tests include texture analyser, colourimeter (Lab*), and analytical instruments.

Sensory evaluation tests: difference tests (triangle, duo-trio), ranking, scoring, hedonic 9-point scale; panelists need controlled environment and coded samples.

Sampling and analysis: sampling plan defines lot, sample size and acceptance number; analytical results compared against specification limits.

Food law frameworks: Codex Alimentarius sets international standards; national acts define food, adulteration and misbranding; mandatory standards cover composition, additives and labelling.

Labelling requirements typically include product name, ingredient list in descending order by weight, net quantity, date marking, allergen declaration, nutritional information and storage instructions.

Additives are regulated by class and maximum permitted level; preservatives, colours, emulsifiers, stabilisers and flavour enhancers each have permitted lists and purity criteria.

Certification and audit: GMP, GHP, HACCP, ISO 22000, ISO 9001, BRCGS; third-party audit verifies conformity and issues a certificate with a validity period.

Metrology and traceability: calibration of instruments, batch coding, one-step-back one-step-forward traceability required for recall and food safety investigations.

Consumer protection measures: recall classification, product withdrawal versus recall, complaint handling, and documented corrective action records.

Cleaning is removal of soil; sanitation is reduction of microorganisms; sequence is dry clean-up, pre-rinse, detergent wash, rinse, sanitiser, air dry.

Detergent types: alkaline (saponify fats, remove protein), acidic (remove mineral scale and milkstone), neutral, and sanitising agents (chlorine, quaternary ammonium, peracetic acid, hot water).

Clean-in-place (CIP) uses circulation, turbulence and temperature control; parameters are concentration, temperature, time and flow velocity (typically 1.5 m/s).

Stainless steel grade 304 is standard food contact; 316 is used for high-chloride or acidic duty; food contact surfaces must be smooth, non-absorbent, non-toxic and corrosion-resistant.

Design rules: no crevices, rounded corners, drainage away from product zones, separation of raw and cooked zones, unidirectional workflow to prevent cross-contamination.

Pest control: exclusion, sanitation, monitoring (bait stations, insect light traps), and documented pest control records; rodents and stored-product insects are key targets.

Personal hygiene: handwashing stations, protective clothing, hair restraints, no jewellery, health reporting, and training records for food handlers.

Water quality: potable water for food contact and handwashing; steam used for direct contact must be from approved boiler treatment chemicals.

Equipment maintenance: preventive schedules, lubricants must be food grade (H1), and calibration of thermometers, pH meters and weighing scales must be documented.

Business plan components: product description, market analysis, operations plan, management team, financial plan, risk assessment; financial plan includes projected P&L, cash flow and break-even.

Break-even quantity = fixed cost / (selling price per unit − variable cost per unit); contribution margin ratio = contribution / sales.

Costing for food products: raw material, packaging, labour, utilities, overheads, wastage; gross margin = (sales − cost of goods sold) / sales.

Working capital cycle for perishables is short; inventory turnover and shelf life determine cash flow risk; credit terms and payment collection affect liquidity.

Market segmentation, targeting and positioning; the marketing mix (product, price, place, promotion); for food, distribution and cold chain are decisive.

Pricing approaches: cost-plus, competitive, value-based; penetration pricing for new products, skimming for premium or novel products.

Legal forms: sole proprietorship, partnership, company, cooperative; food businesses also need registration/licence, FSSAI-type registration in India and equivalent national permits elsewhere.

Food business support: subsidies, incubators, food parks, bank loans, MSME schemes; records needed include licences, GST/tax registration, and product approvals.

Branding and labelling drive repeat purchase; certification marks, shelf-life claims and nutrition claims must be substantiated and legally permitted.

Laboratory safety: know emergency exits, eyewash and fire extinguisher locations; wear lab coat, goggles and gloves; never pipette by mouth; label all containers.

Measurement accuracy: record readings to the instrument's precision, use the mean of triplicates, report standard deviation, and calibrate balances and pH meters before use.

Moisture determination: weigh dish, dry at 105 °C to constant weight, cool in desiccator, reweigh; report moisture as percentage of sample weight.

Titratable acidity: titrate sample with standard NaOH using phenolphthalein; acidity % = (N × V × equivalent weight × 100) / sample weight.

Total soluble solids: calibrate refractometer with distilled water, place a few drops of filtered sample, read °Brix at stated temperature and apply correction.

Microbiological sampling: aseptic technique, sterile diluent, serial dilution, pour or spread plate, incubate at specified temperature and time, count colonies (30–300 per plate).

Project report structure: title, objectives, literature review, materials and methods, results and discussion, conclusion, references; raw data must be retained.

Sensory panel organisation: code samples with random 3-digit numbers, randomise order, provide water and unsalted crackers between samples, use score sheets.

Scale-up calculations: convert bench recipe to batch size by ratio; account for process losses, equipment capacity and packaging fill weight tolerances.

Recipe formulation: express ingredients as percentage of total batch; baker's percentage expresses flour as 100 % and other ingredients relative to it.

Process flow diagram for a product should list each unit operation, critical parameters (temperature, time, pressure) and control points.

Shelf-life testing: store samples under accelerated conditions (elevated temperature, controlled humidity), test at intervals, extrapolate using reaction kinetics (Q10).

Sensory and physicochemical testing should be paired; a product passing microbial tests may still fail on texture or flavour during storage.

Waste and effluent: measure solid waste, water use and effluent load; cleaner production reduces water and energy per kg of product.

Documentation: batch records, log sheets, calibration records and deviation reports are evidence of process control and are required for audits.

Costing a pilot batch: include raw materials, packaging, utilities, labour and overhead allocation; compare with market price to assess viability.

Presentation of results: use tables and graphs with labelled axes and units; state assumptions and limitations honestly in the discussion.

A food business must hold the correct category of registration or licence; category depends on turnover and scale of operation.

Mandatory labelling items: name of food, list of ingredients, nutritional information, declaration of veg/non-veg status where required, net quantity, lot/batch, date of manufacture, best-before or expiry, storage conditions, name and address of manufacturer.

Allergen declaration is mandatory for the specified list; cross-contact warnings must be truthful and not a substitute for controls.

Additive use must comply with permitted list and maximum level for the specific food category; carry-over from ingredients is limited.

Hygiene compliance requires documented cleaning schedules, pest control records, training records, medical fitness of handlers and water testing reports.

Recall plan: define recall coordinator, contact list, traceability records, mock recall exercise, and communication to authorities and customers.

Audit readiness: internal audit schedule, non-conformity log, corrective and preventive action records, management review minutes.

Advertising and claims must be substantiated; health claims need regulatory approval and cannot mislead about nutritional or medicinal properties.

Yield % = (weight of saleable product / weight of raw material) × 100; loss % = 100 − yield %.

Overrun in ice cream = ((volume of mix − volume of ice cream) / volume of ice cream) × 100, or weight-based equivalent.

Concentration factor = initial weight / final weight; solids in concentrate = initial solids / final weight × 100.

D-value calculation: D = t / (log N0 − log N); F0 = D121 × (log N0 − log N) for a 12-log reduction target.

z-value from two D-values: z = (T2 − T1) / (log D1 − log D2).

Shelf-life Q10: rate at T+10 °C divided by rate at T; higher Q10 means faster quality loss with temperature.

Packaging cost per unit = total packaging cost / number of units; unit cost = total batch cost / saleable units.

Moisture and solids: solids % = 100 − moisture %; dry matter basis = (component / dry matter) × 100.

Sensory score analysis: mean, standard deviation and ANOVA to test whether sample differences are statistically significant.

Aseptic technique: flame loop, work near flame, open plates minimally, and sterilise media by autoclave at 121 °C for 15 minutes.

Media: nutrient agar for total counts, MacConkey for coliforms, PDA for moulds and yeasts; incubation temperatures typically 37 °C for pathogens, 30 °C or 25 °C for spoilage organisms.

Colony count: count plates with 30–300 colonies, multiply by dilution factor and divide by inoculum volume to give CFU/mL or CFU/g.

Gram staining sequence: crystal violet, iodine, alcohol decolouriser, safranin counterstain; Gram-positive retain purple, Gram-negative appear pink.

Spore staining and motility tests help identify Bacillus and Clostridium; catalase and oxidase tests differentiate groups.

HACCP CCP decision tree: is there a control measure, does the step eliminate or reduce the hazard to acceptable level, could contamination occur, will a later step remove it.

Critical limits must be measurable (temperature, time, pH, aw) and monitoring frequency must be stated; deviation triggers corrective action and product hold.

Environmental swabbing and ATP swabs verify cleaning effectiveness; results are recorded and trended.

Heat exchangers: plate (high surface area, easy cleaning), tubular (viscous products), scraped surface (crystallising or very viscous products); LMTD used for sizing.

Dryers: tray, tunnel, fluidised bed, spray, drum, freeze dryer; choice depends on product form, heat sensitivity and throughput.

Mills: hammer mill (impact), ball mill (attrition), roller mill (compression and shear, used in flour milling), colloid mill (fine dispersion).

Mixers: ribbon blender for powders, planetary and paddle for viscous mixes, high-shear for emulsions; mixing time and speed affect uniformity.

Separators: cyclone, filter press, decanter centrifuge, membrane modules; capacity depends on pressure drop and fouling.

Utilities: steam boiler, chilled water, compressed air, electricity; energy per tonne of product is a key performance indicator.

Instrumentation: thermocouples, RTDs, pressure gauges, flow meters, level sensors; control loops use PID controllers.

Maintenance types: preventive, predictive (vibration, thermography), breakdown; spare parts and lubrication schedules are documented.

GMP covers facilities, personnel, sanitation, equipment and processes; GHP covers hygiene practices; both are prerequisites for HACCP.

ISO 22000 integrates HACCP principles with management system requirements; FSSC 22000 and BRCGS are certification schemes recognised by retailers.

Quality control tests product; quality assurance builds systems to prevent defects; total quality management involves all staff.

Statistical process control uses control charts (X-bar, R, p, c) with upper and lower control limits at ±3 sigma.

Sampling plans define lot size, sample size and acceptance number; operating characteristic curve shows probability of acceptance versus defect level.

Calibration and verification: reference standards traceable to national metrology institutes; records retained.

Supplier approval: audit, specification agreement, certificate of analysis, and periodic performance review.

Complaint and recall management: root cause analysis, corrective action, verification of effectiveness, and trend monitoring.

Training records, medical fitness certificates and hygiene audits are part of documented food safety culture.

Idea screening criteria: market demand, technical feasibility, capital requirement, regulatory pathway, and competitive advantage.

Market research methods: surveys, interviews, competitor analysis, test marketing; sample size and questionnaire design affect reliability.

Financial projections: sales forecast, cost of production, gross and net margin, break-even point, payback period, and return on investment.

Cash flow statement differs from profit and loss; a profitable business can fail if cash is tied up in inventory or receivables.

Funding sources: own capital, bank loan, government subsidy, angel or venture funding, cooperative and self-help group finance.

Licensing and registration steps: business registration, tax registration, food safety licence, factory licence, pollution clearance and product approval where required.

Distribution channels: direct retail, distributors, e-commerce, institutional supply; cold chain requirement influences channel choice.

Branding elements: name, logo, packaging design, label claims, and consistent quality; packaging protects and communicates.

Risk management: raw material price volatility, seasonality, spoilage, regulatory change, and competition; mitigation through contracts, insurance and diversification.