UP Police Assistant Operator cheat sheet

The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950; 26 January commemorates the 1930 Lahore Session Purna Swaraj declaration.

National symbols: national bird Indian peacock, national animal Bengal tiger, national flower lotus, national fruit mango, national river Ganga (declared 2008), national aquatic animal Ganges river dolphin.

Uttar Pradesh has 75 districts after the creation of Prabuddh Nagar (Shahjahanpur division reorganisation); Lucknow is the state capital and the High Court sits at Prayagraj (Allahabad).

Constitutional and statutory bodies differ: Election Commission, UPSC, CAG and Finance Commission are constitutional; NITI Aayog, NHRC and CBI are statutory/executive creations.

Firsts to remember: first Indian Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1913), first woman IPS officer Kiran Bedi, first Indian in space Rakesh Sharma (1984), first woman President Pratibha Patil.

Current-affairs anchors: Budget presented on 1 February, Economic Survey a day earlier, Republic Day chief guest announced in January, and the National Sports Awards (Khel Ratna/Arjuna) announced around 29 August.

International organisations: UN founded 24 October 1945 (UN Day), headquarters New York; WHO Geneva; UNESCO Paris; IMF and World Bank Washington DC; SAARC Kathmandu.

Space and defence milestones: Chandrayaan-3 soft-landed near the lunar south pole on 23 August 2023; Aditya-L1 studies the Sun from the L1 point; INS Vikrant is India's first indigenously built aircraft carrier.

SI base units: length metre, mass kilogram, time second, electric current ampere, temperature kelvin, amount of substance mole, luminous intensity candela.

Newton's laws: F = ma; a body stays at rest or in uniform motion unless a net external force acts; every action has an equal and opposite reaction on a different body.

Ohm's law V = IR; power P = VI = I²R = V²/R; resistors in series add (R = R1 + R2), in parallel 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2.

pH scale 0–14: below 7 acidic, 7 neutral, above 7 basic; litmus turns red in acid and blue in base; phenolphthalein is colourless in acid and pink in base.

Human body: 206 bones in an adult, 12 pairs of cranial nerves, normal body temperature about 37 °C, blood pH about 7.4, largest organ is the skin.

Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight; occurs in chloroplasts, oxygen released comes from water.

Vitamins and deficiency: A night blindness, B1 beriberi, B3 pellagra, B12 pernicious anaemia, C scurvy, D rickets, K poor clotting.

Blood groups: A, B, AB, O with Rh factor; O negative is the universal donor for red cells and AB positive the universal recipient.

Indus Valley sites: Harappa (Ravi), Mohenjo-daro (Indus, Great Bath), Lothal (Gujarat, dockyard), Kalibangan (Rajasthan, ploughed field), Dholavira (Khadir island, water reservoirs).

Mauryan administration: Chandragupta founded the empire with Chanakya's Arthashastra; Ashoka's Dhamma and Rock and Pillar Edicts; Kalinga war in 261 BCE.

Freedom movement dates: Revolt of 1857, INC founded 1885, Partition of Bengal 1905, Jallianwala Bagh 1919, Non-Cooperation 1920, Dandi March 1930, Quit India 1942.

Constituent Assembly: formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan 1946, first met 9 December 1946, Drafting Committee chaired by B. R. Ambedkar, adopted the Constitution 26 November 1949.

Fundamental Rights (Part III, Articles 12–35): six rights after the Right to Property was removed by the 44th Amendment (1978) and made Article 300A.

Directive Principles in Part IV (Articles 36–51) are non-justiciable; Fundamental Duties in Part IVA (Article 51A) were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976).

Emergency provisions: National Emergency Article 352, State Emergency Article 356, Financial Emergency Article 360; Fundamental Rights under Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended.

President election: elected by an electoral college of elected MPs and elected MLAs using the single transferable vote and proportional representation; impeachment under Article 61.

Latitudinal extent of mainland India 8°4′N to 37°6′N, longitudinal 68°7′E to 97°25′E; Tropic of Cancer passes through eight states including Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Mizoram.

Himalayan ranges north to south: Trans-Himalaya (Karakoram, Ladakh), Greater Himalaya (Himadri), Lesser Himalaya (Himachal), Shivalik; highest peak in India Kanchenjunga (8,586 m).

Rivers: Ganga rises at Gangotri (Bhagirathi), Brahmaputra as Tsangpo in Tibet, Indus near Mansarovar; Godavari is the longest peninsular river (Dakshin Ganga).

Soils: alluvial (most extensive, Indo-Gangetic plain), black regur (cotton, Deccan trap), red (iron-rich crystalline rocks), laterite (heavy rainfall, leaching).

Monsoon: southwest monsoon June–September brings about 75% of annual rainfall; Mawsynram and Cherrapunji record the highest rainfall; Tamil Nadu gets winter rain from the northeast monsoon.

National income measures: GDP at market prices, GNP = GDP + net factor income from abroad, NNP = GNP − depreciation; base year for national accounts is 2011-12.

Inflation: CPI measures retail prices, WPI wholesale (base 2011-12); repo rate is the rate at which banks borrow from the RBI, reverse repo the opposite.

Five-Year Plans: First Plan 1951–56 focused on agriculture; Planning Commission replaced by NITI Aayog on 1 January 2015; GST launched 1 July 2017.

Number series: check differences, then ratios, then alternating or square/cube patterns; e.g. 2, 6, 12, 20, 30 follows n(n+1).

Coding-decoding: for letter shifts use positions A=1 to Z=26; opposite letters satisfy position sum 27 (A–Z, B–Y, C–X).

Blood relations: draw a family tree with symbols; 'maternal uncle' = mother's brother, 'paternal aunt' = father's sister; never assume gender from a name.

Direction sense: use a coordinate grid; net displacement after turns is found by summing north-south and east-west components, then applying Pythagoras.

Syllogism: a conclusion follows only if true in every possible Venn diagram; 'some A are B' does not imply 'some B are A' is false-it is actually true by conversion.

Seating arrangement: fix the reference person first, apply left/right as facing direction dictates; in a row facing north, left means the person's left as seen by the observer.

Clock and calendar: hands coincide every 65 5/11 minutes; angle = |30H − 5.5M|; a normal year shifts the day by 1 and a leap year by 2.

Odd one out and analogy: test classification by category, function, or part-whole relation before choosing the pair with the same relation.

Percentage change: increase by x% then decrease by x% gives a net decrease of x²/100 percent; successive changes a% and b% give a + b + ab/100.

Profit and loss: profit% = (SP − CP)/CP × 100; discount is always on marked price; SP = MP(1 − d/100)(1 + tax/100).

Simple interest SI = PRT/100; compound interest A = P(1 + R/100)^T; CI − SI for two years = P(R/100)².

Time, speed, distance: distance = speed × time; average speed for equal distances = 2xy/(x + y); km/h to m/s multiply by 5/18.

Time and work: if A does a job in a days and B in b days, together they take ab/(a + b) days; efficiency is inversely proportional to time.

Ratio and mixture: alligation rule gives ratio of quantities = (mean − cheaper) : (dearer − mean); successive replacement reduces quantity by P(1 − x/P)^n.

Mensuration: area of circle πr², circumference 2πr; volume of cylinder πr²h, sphere (4/3)πr³, cone (1/3)πr²h; total surface area of cube 6a².

Averages and ages: average = sum/count; if a person of age x is replaced by age y, average changes by (y − x)/n; use ratios for age problems.

वर्णमाला: स्वर 11, व्यंजन 33, संयुक्त व्यंजन क्ष, त्र, ज्ञ, श्र; अनुनासिक चिह्न चंद्रबिंदु (ँ) तथा अनुस्वार (ं) अलग हैं।

संधि: स्वर संधि (दो स्वर), व्यंजन संधि (व्यंजन+स्वर/व्यंजन), विसर्ग संधि; जैसे विद्या + आलय = विद्यालय (दीर्घ संधि)।

समास: तत्पुरुष में उत्तर पद प्रधान, द्वंद्व में दोनों पद प्रधान, बहुव्रीहि में कोई भी पद प्रधान नहीं, अव्ययीभाव में पूर्व पद अव्यय।

उपसर्ग अर्थ बदलते हैं (अनु + शासन = अनुशासन), प्रत्यय शब्द के अंत में जुड़ते हैं (कृत् तथा तद्धित)।

पर्यायवाची, विलोम, अनेकार्थी और मुहावरे प्रश्नों में शब्द का अर्थ संदर्भ से तय करें; मुहावरे का प्रयोग क्रिया की तरह होता है।

वाक्य शुद्धि: लिंग, वचन, कारक और काल की संगति जाँचें; 'राम ने पुस्तक पढ़ी' में ने कर्ता कारक चिह्न है।

अलंकार: अनुप्रास में वर्ण की आवृत्ति, उपमा में 'सा/सम/तुल्य', रूपक में अभेद, उत्प्रेक्षा में 'मानो/जनु'।

रस के नौ भेद हैं; शांत रस का स्थायी भाव निर्वेद है, वीर रस का उत्साह, करुण का शोक।

Parts of speech: a word's role decides its class; 'fast' can be adjective, adverb, verb or noun depending on position in the sentence.

Subject-verb agreement: singular subject takes singular verb; 'each, every, either, neither, everyone' are singular; 'police, cattle' take plural verbs.

Tenses: present perfect (has/have + past participle) for past action with present relevance; past perfect for the earlier of two past actions.

Articles: 'a' before consonant sounds, 'an' before vowel sounds (an hour, a university); 'the' for unique or already specified nouns.

Prepositions: 'since' with a point of time, 'for' with duration; 'between' for two, 'among' for more than two; 'discuss' takes no 'about'.

Active to passive: object becomes subject, verb becomes be + past participle, agent introduced by 'by'; only transitive verbs can be made passive.

Common error traps: 'one of the boys is', 'neither of them has', 'he is senior to me' (not 'senior than'), 'comprises' takes no 'of'.

Reading comprehension: locate the main idea in the first or last sentence, answer only from the passage, and eliminate options with absolute words like 'always' or 'never'.

Functional units: input, output, memory (primary and secondary), ALU, control unit and CPU; the CPU executes the fetch-decode-execute cycle.

Data units: 1 byte = 8 bits, 1 KB = 1024 bytes, 1 MB = 1024 KB, 1 GB = 1024 MB, 1 TB = 1024 GB; a nibble is 4 bits.

Number systems: binary base 2, octal 8, decimal 10, hexadecimal 16; decimal 10 = binary 1010 = hex A; 1's complement inverts bits, 2's complement adds 1.

Memory hierarchy by speed and cost: registers, cache, RAM, SSD/HDD, tape; ROM is non-volatile and holds firmware such as BIOS.

Generations: first vacuum tubes, second transistors, third integrated circuits, fourth microprocessors, fifth artificial intelligence and parallel processing.

Logic gates: AND outputs 1 only if all inputs 1, OR if any input 1, NOT inverts, NAND and NOR are universal gates, XOR gives 1 for odd number of 1s.

Software types: system software (OS, utilities, drivers) versus application software; open source allows source code access, proprietary does not.

File extensions: .exe executable, .txt plain text, .jpg image, .mp3 audio, .pdf portable document, .csv comma-separated values.

OS functions: process management, memory management, file system management, device management and providing a user interface; kernel is the core component.

Scheduling: FCFS, SJF (shortest job first), Round Robin with time quantum, priority scheduling; deadlock needs mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption and circular wait.

Windows shortcuts: Ctrl+C copy, Ctrl+X cut, Ctrl+V paste, Ctrl+Z undo, Ctrl+Y redo, Ctrl+S save, Alt+Tab switch windows, Ctrl+Shift+Esc opens Task Manager.

MS Word: Ctrl+B bold, Ctrl+I italic, Ctrl+U underline, Ctrl+E centre, Ctrl+P print, F7 spell check; mail merge combines a main document with a data source.

MS Excel: a cell reference like B4 means column B row 4; $A$1 is absolute; formulas start with =; SUM, AVERAGE, COUNT, IF and VLOOKUP are common functions.

Excel errors: #DIV/0! division by zero, #VALUE! wrong data type, #REF! invalid reference, #NAME? unrecognised name; a range A1:A10 is selected with a colon.

MS PowerPoint: F5 starts the slideshow from the beginning, Shift+F5 from the current slide; slide layouts and master control consistent formatting.

Linux basics: case-sensitive file names, chmod changes permissions, ls lists files, grep searches text; Android is a Linux-based mobile OS.

OSI layers top to bottom: Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, Physical; TCP/IP merges the top three into Application.

Protocols and ports: HTTP 80, HTTPS 443, FTP 21, SSH 22, SMTP 25, DNS 53, DHCP 67/68, POP3 110, IMAP 143.

IP addressing: IPv4 is 32-bit written in dotted decimal, IPv6 is 128-bit written in hexadecimal; private ranges 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, 192.168.0.0/16.

Devices: hub broadcasts to all ports, switch forwards by MAC address, router forwards by IP address, modem converts digital to analog and back.

Topologies: star uses a central switch, ring passes a token, bus shares one backbone, mesh gives redundant paths; LAN is local, WAN spans large distances.

TCP is connection-oriented and reliable with acknowledgements; UDP is connectionless and faster, used for streaming and DNS queries.

DNS resolves domain names to IP addresses; DHCP assigns IP addresses automatically; NAT translates private addresses to a public address.

Transmission media: twisted pair (Ethernet RJ-45), coaxial cable, fibre optic (light, highest bandwidth, immune to EMI), and wireless radio or microwave.

Internet services: WWW (HTTP/HTTPS), email (SMTP send, POP3/IMAP receive), FTP file transfer, VoIP and instant messaging; a URL has protocol, domain and path.

Search operators: quotation marks for exact phrase, minus sign to exclude a term, site: to restrict to a domain, filetype: to restrict to a file type.

Malware types: virus attaches to files, worm spreads on its own, trojan disguises as legitimate software, ransomware encrypts data for payment, spyware collects information.

Phishing is a fraudulent message that steals credentials; signs include urgent language, mismatched sender address, unexpected links and requests for OTP or PIN.

Strong password practice: length above complexity, unique per site, no personal details, and multi-factor authentication using something you know plus something you have.

Encryption: HTTPS uses TLS to encrypt traffic; a padlock and https:// indicate encryption but not that the site is trustworthy.

Indian cyber law: Information Technology Act 2000, amended 2008; cybercrime can be reported at cybercrime.gov.in or helpline 1930 for financial fraud.

Digital signatures use public-key cryptography: the sender signs with a private key and the receiver verifies with the public key; a hash detects tampering.

Uttar Pradesh facts: largest state by population, shares borders with eight states, Gautam Buddha Nagar and Varanasi are major IT and tourism hubs, state animal swamp deer.

Indian defence exercises and doctrines: Cold Start relates to the army, Exercise Malabar is a naval exercise with the US, Japan and Australia, BrahMos is a supersonic cruise missile.

Economic terms in news: fiscal deficit is total expenditure minus total receipts excluding borrowings; current account deficit is imports of goods and services exceeding exports.

Awards: Bharat Ratna is India's highest civilian award, Param Vir Chakra the highest wartime gallantry award, Jnanpith for literature, Dronacharya for coaches.

Global groupings: BRICS, G20, SCO, QUAD and ASEAN; India hosted the G20 summit in New Delhi in 2023 under the theme 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam'.

Census and demography: Census conducted every ten years, last completed in 2011; sex ratio and literacy rate are key indicators used in policy.

Light: reflection angle of incidence equals angle of reflection; concave mirror converges, convex diverges; convex lens converges, concave diverges; myopia corrected by concave lens.

Sound travels fastest in solids, slowest in gases; audible range for humans 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz; ultrasound above 20 kHz is used in sonography.

Electricity: household supply in India is 220 V, 50 Hz; a fuse and earthing protect against short circuits; conductors have low resistance, insulators high.

Acids and bases: acids release H+ ions, bases release OH−; neutralisation gives salt and water; antacids use magnesium hydroxide or sodium bicarbonate.

Cell biology: mitochondria are the powerhouse, ribosomes synthesise protein, nucleus holds DNA, chloroplasts occur only in plant cells, cell wall is made of cellulose.

Diseases: malaria from Plasmodium via female Anopheles, dengue from virus via Aedes aegypti, tuberculosis from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, polio and measles are viral.

Chemistry basics: atomic number = protons, mass number = protons + neutrons; isotopes differ in neutrons; noble gases have full outer shells and are inert.

Everyday science: pressure cooker raises pressure and boiling point; salt lowers the freezing point of water; baking soda is sodium bicarbonate, washing soda sodium carbonate.

Governors and Chief Ministers: the Governor is appointed by the President under Article 155 and holds office during the pleasure of the President; the CM is appointed under Article 164.

Legislative procedure: a Money Bill is introduced only in the Lok Sabha with the President's recommendation, and the Rajya Sabha can keep it for at most 14 days.

Judiciary: Supreme Court under Article 124, High Court under Article 214; Article 32 is the right to constitutional remedies, called the heart and soul of the Constitution by Ambedkar.

Amendments: Article 368 provides amendment procedure; the Kesavananda Bharati judgment (1973) established the basic structure doctrine.

Panchayati Raj: 73rd Amendment (1992) for panchayats and 74th for municipalities; three-tier panchayat system with five-year terms.

Social reform: Brahmo Samaj by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1828), Arya Samaj by Dayanand Saraswati (1875), Ramakrishna Mission by Swami Vivekananda (1897).

Mughal and colonial milestones: Akbar's Din-i-Ilahi (1582), Battle of Plassey 1757, Permanent Settlement 1793, Revolt of 1857, Indian National Congress 1885.

Crops: rice needs high rainfall and alluvial soil, wheat needs cool growing season and loam, cotton needs black soil, tea needs well-drained slopes and heavy rainfall in Assam and Nilgiris.

Minerals: Jharkhand and Odisha for iron ore, Chhattisgarh for coal and iron, Rajasthan for zinc and marble, Assam for crude oil, Karnataka for gold (Kolar).

Industries: iron and steel at Jamshedpur, Bhilai, Rourkela and Durgapur; cotton textiles in Mumbai and Ahmedabad; software in Bengaluru, Hyderabad and Noida.

RBI functions: issues currency, banker to government and banks, manages foreign exchange, sets monetary policy through the Monetary Policy Committee (six members, repo rate target).

Taxes: direct tax (income tax, corporate tax) cannot be shifted; indirect tax (GST, customs) is passed to the consumer; GST slabs are 5, 12, 18 and 28 percent.

Agriculture support: MSP recommended by CACP, minimum support price announced for notified crops; NABARD is the apex development bank for agriculture and rural credit.

Series with letters: convert to positions, find the constant or increasing gap; A, C, F, J, O follows +2, +3, +4, +5.

Statement and assumption: an assumption is unstated but necessary for the statement; if negating it destroys the statement, it is a valid assumption.

Cubes and dice: a standard die has opposite faces summing to 7; in a painted cube cut into n³ smaller cubes, corner cubes are 8 and edge cubes are 12(n − 2).

Ranking: if a person is nth from the left and mth from the right, total = n + m − 1; for two people, use total = left rank + right rank + persons between.

Venn diagrams: 'all A are B' means A lies inside B; 'no A is B' means disjoint circles; 'some A are B' means overlapping circles.

Number puzzles and matrix: check row-wise and column-wise sums and products; in a 3×3 magic square the sum of each line equals 3 times the centre.

Coding by pattern: 'if TEACHER is coded as VGCEJGT' shows each letter shifted by +2; check for reversal, position-based or word-based rules before assuming a shift.

Syllogism possibilities: 'some A are B' leaves open that 'all A are B' may be true, so a possibility conclusion is valid unless contradicted by a given statement.

Number system: divisibility by 3 if digit sum divisible by 3, by 9 if digit sum divisible by 9, by 11 if alternating digit sum difference is 0 or multiple of 11.

LCM and HCF: product of two numbers = HCF × LCM; HCF divides LCM; for fractions HCF = HCF of numerators / LCM of denominators.

Partnership: profit shares are proportional to capital × time; if capitals are equal the ratio depends only on time periods.

Boats and streams: downstream speed = boat + stream, upstream = boat − stream; time = distance/speed; average speed for round trip = (down × up × 2)/(down + up).

Pipes and cisterns: filling pipes are positive work, emptying pipes negative; combined rate = sum of individual rates; time = 1/rate.

Interest and instalments: for equal annual instalments, present value = instalment × [1 − (1 + r)^−n]/r; simple interest instalment problems use linear equations.

Probability: P(E) = favourable outcomes / total outcomes; P(not E) = 1 − P(E); for two independent events P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B).

Data interpretation: compute percentage share = part/total × 100; average = total/count; check units and rounding before matching options.

कारक चिह्न: कर्ता 'ने', कर्म 'को', करण 'से/के द्वारा', संप्रदान 'के लिए', अपादान 'से', अधिकरण 'में/पर', संबंध 'का/की/के'।

काल: वर्तमान, भूतकाल (सामान्य, पूर्ण, अपूर्ण), भविष्यत्; 'पढ़ रहा है' अपूर्ण वर्तमान, 'पढ़ चुका है' पूर्ण वर्तमान।

वाच्य: कर्तृवाच्य, कर्मवाच्य, भाववाच्य; कर्मवाच्य में क्रिया कर्म के अनुसार बदलती है, जैसे 'राम द्वारा पत्र लिखा गया'।

शब्द शक्ति: अभिधा (सीधा अर्थ), लक्षणा (लाक्षणिक अर्थ), व्यंजना (सूचित अर्थ); मुहावरों में लक्षणा प्रमुख है।

विलोम और पर्यायवाची याद रखें: 'अंधकार' का विलोम 'प्रकाश', 'पृथ्वी' के पर्यायवाची 'धरती, भूमि, वसुधा, रत्नगर्भा'।

संक्षेपण और पल्लवन: संक्षेपण में भाव बनाए रखते हुए शब्द कम करें; पल्लवन में सूक्ति का विस्तार उदाहरण सहित करें।

अशुद्धि शुद्धि: 'दर्शन' सही, 'दर्शन' का बहुवचन प्रयोग प्रसंग से; 'कृप्या' अशुद्ध, 'कृपया' शुद्ध।

पत्र लेखन प्रारूप: प्रेषक पता, दिनांक, प्राप्तकर्ता पता, विषय, संबोधन, मुख्य भाग, समापन और हस्ताक्षर।

Idioms: 'to let the cat out of the bag' means reveal a secret; 'once in a blue moon' means very rarely; 'to beat about the bush' means avoid the main point.

One-word substitutions: 'one who talks too much' talkative, 'a person who loves books' bibliophile, 'government by the people' democracy, 'fear of water' hydrophobia.

Synonyms and antonyms in context: choose the option that fits the sentence's tone; 'candid' means frank, its antonym is 'evasive'.

Sentence improvement: prefer the option that is grammatically correct and concise; avoid redundancy such as 'return back' or 'discuss about'.

Cloze test: read the whole passage first, then use collocations and connectors (however, therefore, moreover) to predict the missing word.

Direct to indirect speech: change pronouns to match the reporter, shift tense back one step, and change 'today' to 'that day', 'tomorrow' to 'the next day'.

Figures of speech: simile uses like/as, metaphor states one thing is another, personification gives human qualities to objects, hyperbole is exaggeration.

Paragraph ordering: find the opening sentence with a full noun, follow pronoun and connector chains, and keep the closing sentence with the conclusion.

Binary arithmetic: 0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 1 = 10 (carry 1); binary 1101 equals decimal 13; hexadecimal F equals decimal 15.

Storage devices: HDD is magnetic, SSD uses flash memory, pen drive uses flash, CD/DVD are optical; RAM is volatile, ROM and flash are non-volatile.

Input and output devices: keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone and webcam are input; monitor, printer, speaker and plotter are output; touchscreen is both.

Computer classification: microcomputer, minicomputer, mainframe and supercomputer; PARAM is an Indian supercomputer developed by C-DAC.

Programming concepts: compiler translates the whole program before running, interpreter line by line; algorithm is a finite step-by-step procedure, flowchart uses standard symbols.

Boolean algebra: A + A' = 1, A · A' = 0, A + AB = A; De Morgan's laws: (A + B)' = A' · B' and (A · B)' = A' + B'.

Computer security basics: antivirus scans for signatures, firewall filters network traffic by rules, backup protects against data loss, UPS protects against power failure.

Abbreviations: CPU central processing unit, ALU arithmetic logic unit, RAM random access memory, BIOS basic input output system, GUI graphical user interface.

File management: a file name has a base name and extension; folders create a hierarchy; Windows path format C:\Users\Name\Documents; Linux uses forward slashes.

Memory management: virtual memory uses hard disk space when RAM is full; paging divides memory into fixed-size pages; thrashing occurs with excessive page faults.

Process states: new, ready, running, waiting and terminated; a context switch saves the state of one process and loads another.

MS Word features: header and footer repeat on pages, page break forces a new page, section break allows different orientation, Track Changes records edits.

MS Excel references: relative reference A1 changes when copied, absolute $A$1 does not; IF(condition, value_if_true, value_if_false); COUNT counts numbers, COUNTA counts non-empty cells.

MS PowerPoint: transitions apply between slides, animations apply to objects within a slide; Slide Sorter view arranges order; .pptx is the file extension.

Windows utilities: Disk Cleanup frees space, Disk Defragmenter rearranges files on HDD, Control Panel configures settings, Recycle Bin holds deleted files until emptied.

Shortcut keys: Ctrl+A select all, Ctrl+F find, Ctrl+N new, Ctrl+O open, Ctrl+W close, Alt+F4 exit application, F2 rename a selected file.

Bandwidth and speed: 1 Mbps = 10^6 bits per second; download time = file size in bits / speed; latency is delay, throughput is actual data rate achieved.

Network types by scale: PAN (personal, Bluetooth), LAN (building), MAN (city), WAN (country/global); the Internet is the largest WAN.

Subnetting: a /24 mask is 255.255.255.0 and gives 256 addresses; usable hosts = 2^(host bits) − 2 because network and broadcast addresses are reserved.

Wireless standards: Wi-Fi uses IEEE 802.11, Bluetooth 802.15, WiMAX 802.16; Ethernet is IEEE 802.3; Wi-Fi operates on 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands.

OSI data flow: data is encapsulated with headers going down the layers at the sender and decapsulated going up at the receiver; each layer adds its own header.

Error detection: parity bit detects single-bit errors, checksum adds blocks, CRC uses polynomial division; ARQ requests retransmission of lost frames.

Network commands: ping tests reachability with ICMP, ipconfig shows IP configuration on Windows, tracert shows the route, nslookup queries DNS.

Cloud and web: HTTP is stateless, cookies store session state; cloud models are IaaS, PaaS and SaaS; a proxy server acts as an intermediary.

Safe browsing: check for https and the exact domain spelling, avoid public Wi-Fi for banking, log out of sessions, and keep the browser and OS updated.

Social engineering: pretexting invents a scenario, baiting offers something tempting, tailgating follows someone into a restricted area; verify identity through an official channel.

Digital footprint: information posted online persists; privacy settings limit visibility but do not delete data; avoid sharing location, OTP, Aadhaar or bank details.

Cyber offences under the IT Act: identity theft Section 66C, cheating by personation 66D, publishing obscene material 67, unauthorised access 66; punishment includes imprisonment and fine.

Email safety: check the full sender address, hover over links to see the real URL, treat attachments with .exe or .zip cautiously, and never share passwords by email.

Backup and recovery: the 3-2-1 rule keeps three copies, on two media, with one off-site; ransomware recovery depends on offline backups.

Authentication: OTP is a second factor, biometrics is inherence, password is knowledge, smart card is possession; MFA combines at least two different categories.

Reporting and response: disconnect the affected device, change compromised passwords, report financial fraud to 1930 and cybercrime.gov.in, and preserve evidence.

Percentage to fraction: 12.5% = 1/8, 16.66% = 1/6, 20% = 1/5, 25% = 1/4, 33.33% = 1/3, 37.5% = 3/8, 62.5% = 5/8.

Square and cube roots for speed: squares up to 30 and cubes up to 15 should be recalled; √1764 = 42, ∛3375 = 15.

Ratio comparison: to compare a/b and c/d cross-multiply; if ad > bc then a/b > c/d; keep units consistent.

Calendar facts: 100 years contain 5 odd days, 200 years 3, 300 years 1, 400 years 0; 1 January 2000 was a Saturday.

Coding with numbers: if letters are numbered A=1, the sum of letters in a word gives a checksum used in word-based coding questions.

Simplification order: BODMAS-brackets, orders (powers/roots), division and multiplication left to right, then addition and subtraction left to right.

Mixture replacement: after n replacements of x litres from P litres, remaining pure = P(1 − x/P)^n; final ratio uses remaining pure and added quantity.

Data sufficiency: decide whether the given statements are enough; do not solve fully, only test whether a unique answer is possible.

Schedules: First (states and UTs), Seventh (division of powers: Union, State, Concurrent), Eighth (22 languages), Ninth (land reform laws), Tenth (anti-defection).

Union, State and Concurrent Lists: defence and foreign affairs are Union; police and public health are State; education, forests and criminal law are Concurrent.

Articles to remember: 14 equality before law, 19 six freedoms, 21 life and personal liberty, 21A right to education, 44 uniform civil code, 51A fundamental duties.

Geographical extremes: southernmost point of mainland India is Kanyakumari (Indira Point in Nicobar is the southernmost territory); westernmost Gujarat, easternmost Arunachal Pradesh.

Passes and peaks: Nathu La and Jelep La in Sikkim, Zoji La in Ladakh, Shipki La in Himachal; K2 lies in Pakistan-occupied territory, not in India.

Climate and vegetation: tropical evergreen in Western Ghats and Northeast, deciduous in most of India, thorn in Rajasthan, mangrove in Sundarbans, alpine in the Himalayas.

Memory sizes: a nibble is 4 bits, a byte 8 bits, a word is the CPU's natural unit; 1 KB is 1024 bytes, not 1000.

File formats: .docx Word, .xlsx Excel, .pptx PowerPoint, .pdf portable document, .html web page, .zip compressed archive, .png image with transparency.

Internet terms: ISP provides connectivity, URL is the address, HTTP is the protocol, domain name is the human-readable name, IP address is the numeric address.

E-governance and digital India: DigiLocker stores verified documents, UMANG is a unified mobile app for government services, Aadhaar is a 12-digit identity number.

Shortcut and function keys: F1 help, F2 rename, F5 refresh or slideshow, F12 Save As in Office; Ctrl+Shift+N creates a new folder in Windows.

Common abbreviations: WWW world wide web, DNS domain name system, VPN virtual private network, OTP one-time password, CAPTCHA a human-verification test.

English confusables: affect (verb) vs effect (noun), principal (head) vs principle (rule), stationary (not moving) vs stationery (writing material), complement vs compliment.

Hindi शब्द भेद: संज्ञा, सर्वनाम, विशेषण, क्रिया, क्रियाविशेषण, संबंधबोधक, समुच्चयबोधक, विस्मयादिबोधक-आठ भेद।

English voice and narration are frequent question areas; practise converting imperative and interrogative sentences into indirect speech.

Hindi वर्तनी: 'श' और 'ष' का प्रयोग, 'क्ष' और 'छ' का अंतर, हलंत और शून्य व्यंजन; 'विद्यार्थी' में 'द्या' संयुक्ताक्षर है।

English vocabulary building: learn roots such as 'bene' (good), 'mal' (bad), 'cred' (believe), 'geo' (earth), which help decode unfamiliar words.

Hindi मुहावरे: 'आँख का तारा' अत्यंत प्रिय, 'नौ दो ग्यारह होना' भाग जाना, 'ईद का चाँद' बहुत दिनों बाद दिखना, 'अंधे की लाठी' एकमात्र सहारा।

Indian institutions: ISRO for space, DRDO for defence research, BARC for atomic research, CSIR for scientific research, ICMR for medical research.

Health programmes: Ayushman Bharat provides health cover, Mission Indradhanush for immunisation, POSHAN Abhiyaan for nutrition, Swachh Bharat for sanitation.

Environment: COP summits under UNFCCC, Paris Agreement 2015 targets limiting warming, National Green Tribunal for environmental cases, Project Tiger launched 1973.

Physics constants: speed of light about 3 × 10^8 m/s, acceleration due to gravity about 9.8 m/s², density of water 1000 kg/m³, atmospheric pressure about 101 kPa.

Chemistry in daily life: LPG is butane and propane, CNG is methane, plaster of Paris is calcium sulphate hemihydrate, bleaching powder is calcium oxychloride.

Biology numbers: human heart has four chambers, lungs have two, kidneys two, chromosomes 46 (23 pairs), gestation about 280 days.

Constitutional bodies and tenure: CAG six years or 65 years, Supreme Court judge 65 years, High Court judge 62 years, President five years, Rajya Sabha member six years.

Parliament numbers: Lok Sabha maximum strength 552, Rajya Sabha maximum 250 (238 elected, 12 nominated); Lok Sabha term five years.

Budget terminology: revenue receipts include taxes and non-tax revenue, capital receipts include borrowings; fiscal deficit = total expenditure − total receipts other than borrowings.

Banking: RBI established 1935, nationalised 1949; SBI formed 1955; NABARD 1982; SEBI regulates securities markets; IRDAI regulates insurance.

Tax and welfare schemes: MGNREGA guarantees 100 days of wage employment per rural household per year; PMJDY is financial inclusion through Jan Dhan accounts.

Economic indicators: GDP growth, CPI inflation, unemployment rate, Index of Industrial Production (IIP) and Purchasing Managers' Index (PMI) are commonly tracked.

Analogy relations: worker and workplace, tool and user, cause and effect, synonym, antonym, part and whole; identify the relation before matching options.

Series with mixed operations: test ×2 + 1, ×3 − 2 and alternating patterns; write the differences above the terms to reveal the rule.

Puzzle seating: for circular arrangements facing the centre, left is clockwise; facing outward, left is anticlockwise.

Inequalities: if A > B ≥ C, then A > C; combining chains requires the same direction; 'either or' conclusions occur when the same pair has complementary relations.

Input-output and machine input: track how words or numbers are rearranged step by step; usually the smallest number or alphabetically first word moves to the front each step.

Counting figures: count triangles by selecting vertices systematically, then add overlapping combinations; for straight lines, count intersections to find regions.

Quadratic equations: for ax² + bx + c = 0, roots sum to −b/a and product to c/a; discriminant b² − 4ac determines real, equal or imaginary roots.

Progressions: arithmetic nth term a + (n − 1)d, sum n/2[2a + (n − 1)d]; geometric nth term ar^(n−1), sum a(r^n − 1)/(r − 1).

Logarithms: log(ab) = log a + log b, log(a/b) = log a − log b, log(a^n) = n log a, log base 10 of 1000 is 3.

Trigonometry values: sin 30° = 1/2, cos 60° = 1/2, tan 45° = 1, sin²θ + cos²θ = 1; used in height and distance problems with angles of elevation.

Permutation and combination: nPr = n!/(n − r)!, nCr = n!/[r!(n − r)!]; arrangements of letters with repeats divide by factorial of repeats.

Profit, loss and discount chain: successive discounts of a% and b% equal a + b − ab/100 percent; marked price is set above cost price to allow discount.

UPI and payment safety: never approve a collect request to receive money, never share UPI PIN, and remember that receiving money needs no PIN.

Account security: use screen lock, enable device finder, review app permissions, remove unused apps, and update software to patch known vulnerabilities.

Phishing variants: vishing uses phone calls, smishing uses SMS, pharming redirects to fake sites via DNS; verify through the official app or number.

Data protection: personal data includes name, address, phone, biometrics and financial details; share only with verified and necessary recipients under consent.

Browser safety: clear cookies and cache, use private browsing for shared devices, avoid saving card details on public computers, and check certificate warnings.

Cyber ethics: do not access others' accounts, do not circulate morphed images, respect copyright, and report abuse to the platform and to authorities.

Computer generations and components: motherboard connects components, CPU socket holds the processor, RAM slots hold memory modules, SMPS supplies power.

Ports and connectors: USB universal serial bus, HDMI for audio-video, VGA analog video, RJ-45 Ethernet, 3.5 mm audio jack; USB is hot-swappable.

Software licensing: freeware is free but closed source, open source provides source code, shareware is trial then paid, public domain has no copyright.

Number conversion: to convert decimal to binary divide repeatedly by 2 and read remainders bottom-up; binary to octal group bits in threes.

OSI and TCP/IP mapping: Application (HTTP, FTP), Transport (TCP, UDP), Internet (IP, ICMP), Network Access (Ethernet, Wi-Fi).

Computer ethics and law: unauthorised access, data theft, software piracy and cyberstalking are offences; the IT Act 2000 provides the legal framework in India.

Hindi संधि उदाहरण: सूर्य + उदय = सूर्योदय (गुण संधि), देव + इंद्र = देवेंद्र (गुण), हिम + आलय = हिमालय (दीर्घ), वाक् + ईश = वागीश (व्यंजन संधि)।

Hindi समास उदाहरण: राजपुत्र (तत्पुरुष), माता-पिता (द्वंद्व), दशानन (बहुव्रीहि), यथाशक्ति (अव्ययीभाव)।

English tenses in reported speech: present becomes past, present perfect becomes past perfect, will becomes would, can becomes could, may becomes might.

English modifiers: place adjectives before nouns and adverb phrases near the word they modify; misplaced modifiers change meaning.

Hindi विलोम जोड़े: उत्थान–पतन, आदि–अंत, उचित–अनुचित, सदाचार–दुराचार, स्वदेश–विदेश।

English punctuation: comma for lists and introductory phrases, semicolon between related clauses, apostrophe for possession, colon before an explanation.

Digital public infrastructure: Aadhaar, UPI and DigiLocker form India's DPI; UPI is run by NPCI; ONDC aims to democratise digital commerce.

AI and emerging tech: machine learning learns from data, generative AI produces text or images, blockchain is a distributed immutable ledger, IoT connects physical devices.

Space missions: Chandrayaan-3 landed 23 August 2023, Aditya-L1 launched September 2023, Gaganyaan is India's human spaceflight programme.

Telecom: 5G services launched in India in October 2022; spectrum bands include mid-band and millimetre wave; VoLTE carries voice over the LTE network.

Health technology: mRNA vaccines instruct cells to make a spike protein, telemedicine allows remote consultation, eSanjeevani is India's national telemedicine service.

Cyber resilience: CERT-In is India's national computer emergency response team; it issues advisories and coordinates incident response.

Rivers and tributaries: Yamuna rises from Yamunotri and joins the Ganga at Prayagraj; Son is a southern tributary of the Ganga; Chambal joins the Yamuna.

Lakes: Wular in Kashmir is the largest freshwater lake, Chilika in Odisha is the largest brackish lagoon, Sambhar in Rajasthan is a salt lake, Loktak in Manipur has floating islands.

Biodiversity hotspots in India: Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Sundaland (Nicobar Islands); Western Ghats is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Protected areas: Jim Corbett was India's first national park (1936), Kaziranga is famous for the one-horned rhinoceros, Gir for Asiatic lions, Sundarbans for mangroves.

Disaster management: NDMA is the apex body, NDRF conducts rescue operations; earthquakes are measured on the Richter scale, cyclones are named by a regional panel.

Climate terms: greenhouse gases include CO2, methane and nitrous oxide; ozone depletion is caused by CFCs and is addressed by the Montreal Protocol.

Elections: Election Commission is a three-member body after 1993; Model Code of Conduct applies from announcement to result; NOTA was introduced in 2013.

Local government: 73rd Amendment created the State Election Commission and State Finance Commission for panchayats; Gram Sabha consists of all registered voters of a village.

Rights and remedies: writs are habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, certiorari and quo warranto; Article 32 empowers the Supreme Court to issue them.

Constitutional amendments: 42nd (1976) added Fundamental Duties and the word 'socialist, secular, integrity'; 44th (1978) removed the right to property; 101st (2016) introduced GST.

Governance bodies: NITI Aayog is a policy think tank, UPSC conducts civil services exams, Finance Commission recommends devolution of taxes every five years.

Official language: Article 343 declares Hindi in Devanagari script the official language of the Union; English continues as an associate official language.

Word tables and references: Insert > Table creates a grid, Table Tools adjust borders; Insert > Footnote adds a reference at the bottom of the page.

Excel functions: SUMIF sums with a condition, COUNTIF counts with a condition, CONCATENATE or & joins text, ROUND(value, digits) rounds a number.

Excel charts: column chart compares categories, line chart shows trends over time, pie chart shows parts of a whole, scatter chart shows correlation.

PowerPoint objects: insert pictures, shapes, SmartArt and charts; rehearse timings sets automatic slide advances; Slide Master controls fonts and backgrounds globally.

Email clients: To, Cc (carbon copy, visible), Bcc (blind carbon copy, hidden); attachments have size limits; Reply All includes all recipients.

Print and export: Ctrl+P opens print, print preview shows layout, Save As PDF preserves formatting, page setup sets margins and orientation.

IP address classes: Class A 1–126, B 128–191, C 192–223, D multicast 224–239, E reserved; 127.x.x.x is loopback.

URL structure: scheme://host:port/path?query#fragment; for example https://example.com:443/page?id=1; default HTTP port 80 is often omitted.

Email protocols: SMTP sends, POP3 downloads and usually deletes from the server, IMAP keeps mail synchronised on the server across devices.

Wireless security: WEP is weak, WPA2 and WPA3 are stronger; use a strong router password, change the default SSID admin credentials, and disable WPS.

Web technologies: HTML structures content, CSS styles it, JavaScript adds behaviour; HTTP status codes 200 OK, 301 moved, 404 not found, 500 server error.

Cloud services: IaaS provides virtual machines, PaaS provides a development platform, SaaS provides ready applications such as webmail and online office suites.

Identity and documents: Aadhaar number should not be shared publicly; mask the first eight digits when sharing a copy; use DigiLocker for verified copies.

Financial fraud patterns: lottery or prize messages, fake job offers asking for a fee, fraudulent loan apps, SIM swap, and QR code scams requesting payment.

Device hygiene: install apps from official stores, review permissions, use antivirus, enable automatic updates, and encrypt or lock the device with a PIN or biometric.

Password managers and 2FA: a password manager stores unique passwords securely; authenticator apps are safer than SMS OTP because SMS can be intercepted.

Social media safety: limit personal information, verify friend requests, avoid clicking shortened links, and report impersonation to the platform and cybercrime portal.

Incident response steps: isolate the device, preserve logs, change credentials from a clean device, inform the bank immediately for financial fraud, and file an online complaint.

Ancient universities: Nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar, Takshashila in present-day Pakistan; Nalanda was patronised by the Gupta and later Harsha.

Dynasties and capitals: Mauryas Pataliputra, Guptas Pataliputra, Cholas Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Mughals Agra, Delhi and Fatehpur Sikri.

Bhakti and Sufi saints: Kabir, Mirabai, Tulsidas, Surdas in Bhakti; Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti and Nizamuddin Auliya in Sufi tradition.

Art and architecture: Sanchi stupa, Ajanta and Ellora caves, Konark Sun Temple, Khajuraho temples, Taj Mahal; styles include Nagara, Dravida and Indo-Islamic.

Social movements: Arya Samaj for Vedic reform, Satyashodhak Samaj by Jyotirao Phule for lower-caste uplift, Self-Respect Movement by Periyar.

Modern milestones: Indian National Army by Subhas Chandra Bose, Dandi March 1930, Quit India 1942, Cabinet Mission 1946, independence and partition 1947.

Energy sources: solar photovoltaic converts light to electricity, wind turbines use kinetic energy, hydro uses potential energy, nuclear fission of uranium releases energy.

Newton and gravitation: weight = mass × g; gravitational force F = Gm1m2/r²; escape velocity from Earth is about 11.2 km/s.

Heat and thermodynamics: heat flows from hot to cold; latent heat changes state without temperature change; absolute zero is 0 K or −273.15 °C.

Chemical reactions: combination, decomposition, displacement, double displacement, redox; rusting is oxidation of iron in the presence of oxygen and moisture.

Genetics: DNA carries hereditary information, genes are segments of DNA, Mendel's laws describe inheritance, and human males have XY sex chromosomes.

Health and nutrition: carbohydrates and fats provide energy, proteins build tissue, vitamins and minerals regulate body functions, water is essential for metabolism.

Ratios in ages: if present ages are in ratio a:b, after n years the ratio becomes (ax + n):(bx + n); solve for x using the given future ratio.

Speed and time with stops: if a bus travels at 50 km/h without stops and 40 km/h with stops, stop time per hour = 1 − 40/50 = 0.2 hour = 12 minutes.

Work and wages: wages are shared in proportion to work done, which equals efficiency × time; if efficiencies are in ratio, wages follow that ratio.

Simple equations: translate word problems into one variable where possible; check the answer by substituting back into the original condition.

Coding by position: if the code of a word is the sum of letter positions, TRY = 20 + 18 + 25 = 63; use this to verify options quickly.

Venn diagram counting: n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B); for three sets subtract pairwise intersections and add the triple intersection.

Hindi संधि विच्छेद: सूर्योदय = सूर्य + उदय, हिमालय = हिम + आलय, वागीश = वाक् + ईश, नरेंद्र = नर + इंद्र, परमेश्वर = परम + ईश्वर।

Hindi वाक्यांश के लिए एक शब्द: जो कहा न जा सके-अकथनीय; जिसका कोई शत्रु न हो-अजातशत्रु; जो सब कुछ जानता है-सर्वज्ञ; जो ईश्वर में विश्वास रखता है-आस्तिक।

English synonyms: abundant = plentiful, brief = concise, cautious = careful, diligent = hardworking, evident = obvious, hazardous = dangerous.

English antonyms: benevolent–malevolent, frugal–extravagant, transparent–opaque, optimistic–pessimistic, temporary–permanent, voluntary–compulsory.

Comprehension strategy: identify the author's purpose (inform, persuade, entertain), distinguish fact from opinion, and infer meaning from context rather than word lists.

Grammar agreement traps: 'a number of students are' but 'the number of students is'; 'one of the + plural noun + singular verb'.

Spreadsheet and document integration: copy-paste links data but Paste Special > Values removes formulas; embedding keeps a live link to the source file.

Data validation and sorting: Data > Sort arranges rows by a column, Filter hides rows that do not match; data validation restricts entries to a list or range.

Presentation delivery: use Presenter View to see notes, set slide size to widescreen, and compress media to reduce file size before sharing.

File compression and sharing: .zip reduces size for transfer, cloud drives share by link with permissions (view or edit), and large files are shared via links rather than email.

Backup strategy: keep periodic full backups and frequent incremental backups, verify restoration, and store one copy off-site or in the cloud.

Troubleshooting basics: check power and cables first, restart the device, update drivers, scan for malware, and check event logs before reinstalling software.

Ping and latency: ping measures round-trip time in milliseconds; high latency with low bandwidth indicates congestion or distance, not necessarily low speed.

Ports and services: DNS 53, DHCP 67/68, HTTP 80, HTTPS 443, FTP 21, SSH 22, Telnet 23, SMTP 25; Telnet is insecure and replaced by SSH.

Firewall and antivirus: a firewall filters traffic by IP, port and protocol; antivirus scans files for known malicious signatures and behaviour.

Wi-Fi troubleshooting: check signal strength, change the channel to reduce interference, restart the router, verify the password, and update firmware.

IP configuration: static IP is manually set, dynamic IP comes from DHCP; subnet mask separates network and host portions; gateway is the router address.

Network security: WPA2/WPA3 encryption, MAC filtering, hidden SSID and strong admin passwords reduce unauthorised access but do not replace encryption.

Digital payments: UPI, NEFT, RTGS, IMPS differ in speed and limits; RTGS is for high-value real-time transfers, NEFT settles in batches, IMPS is instant.

E-commerce safety: check seller ratings, return policy, and payment protection; prefer cash on delivery or card with chargeback for unknown sellers.

Social media and law: defamation, obscenity, hate speech and fake news can attract legal action; the IT Act and IPC/BNS provisions apply.

Digital literacy: verify news through multiple sources, check the date and author, reverse-image search pictures, and be sceptical of forwarded messages.

Accessibility and inclusion: screen readers, captions and keyboard navigation make digital services usable for persons with disabilities; the RPwD Act 2016 supports this.

Online learning and services: e-learning platforms, telemedicine, e-courts and DigiLocker are examples of digital service delivery in India.

Computer architecture: von Neumann architecture stores program and data in the same memory; Harvard architecture separates instruction and data memory.

Operating system types: batch, time-sharing, real-time, distributed and mobile; real-time OS is used where deadlines matter, such as embedded systems.

File systems: FAT32, NTFS and exFAT are Windows file systems; ext4 is common on Linux; NTFS supports permissions and larger files than FAT32.

Cloud storage: Google Drive, OneDrive and Dropbox sync files across devices; free tiers have limited storage; sharing can be view-only or editable.

Cyber hygiene for exams: keep question papers and personal data private, avoid installing unknown apps, and use official websites for results and admit cards.

Artificial intelligence basics: supervised learning uses labelled data, unsupervised learning finds patterns, reinforcement learning uses rewards; AI is used in chatbots and recommendation systems.

Time allocation: in a typical objective paper, spend about one minute per question; mark difficult questions and return after completing easy ones.

Negative marking: if one-third of a mark is deducted for a wrong answer, guess only when at least two options are eliminated with confidence.

Reading the question: identify whether it asks for the correct or incorrect option, and note words like 'not', 'except' and 'only'.

Option elimination: discard options with absolute words such as 'always' or 'never' in comprehension and reasoning unless the passage supports them.

Revision order: revise formulas and facts first, then practice weak areas, and keep a short list of repeated mistakes for the final day.

Answer sheet care: fill bubbles or options carefully, check numbering, and reserve the last few minutes to verify that no question is left blank unintentionally.