UPMSP High School Human Science cheat sheet

The adult human skeleton has 206 bones: 80 axial bones (skull, vertebral column, rib cage, sternum) and 126 appendicular bones (limbs and girdles).

Bone cells: osteoblasts build matrix, osteocytes maintain it in lacunae, and osteoclasts resorb bone; red marrow forms blood cells and yellow marrow stores fat.

A long bone has a diaphysis, epiphyses, periosteum, and medullary cavity; the epiphyseal plate is the growth zone in children.

Joint types: fibrous joints are immovable (skull sutures), cartilaginous joints are slightly movable (vertebral discs), and synovial joints are freely movable (knee hinge, hip ball-and-socket, neck pivot).

Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary; smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary; cardiac muscle is striated, involuntary, and has intercalated discs.

Sliding-filament contraction: myosin heads pull actin filaments toward the sarcomere center; ATP and calcium ions are required.

Skin layers are epidermis (avascular, keratinized), dermis (nerves, vessels, glands), and subcutaneous tissue (fat); melanin absorbs UV radiation.

Skin functions include protection, thermoregulation by sweating and vasodilation, vitamin D synthesis, sensation, and minor excretion.

Pressure sores result from prolonged unrelieved pressure over bony prominences; healing of a clean wound proceeds by inflammation, granulation, and epithelialization.

Digestive tract order: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus; liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are accessory organs.

Salivary amylase begins starch digestion in the mouth; gastric HCl activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion.

Bile is made in the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and emulsifies fats; it contains no digestive enzyme.

Most absorption occurs in the small intestine; villi and microvilli increase surface area, and the duodenum receives bile and pancreatic enzymes.

The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes and forms feces; peristalsis propels gut contents.

Energy values: carbohydrate 4 kcal/g, protein 4 kcal/g, fat 9 kcal/g; vitamins and minerals are micronutrients required in small amounts.

Deficiency rules: vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy, vitamin D deficiency causes rickets, vitamin B1 deficiency causes beriberi, and iron deficiency causes anemia.

A balanced diet supplies energy, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water in proportions matching age, sex, and activity.

Enzymes act on specific substrates: amylase on starch, protease on proteins, and lipase on fats; fiber is not digested by human enzymes.

Air pathway: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli; alveoli have thin moist walls and a large surface area for gas exchange.

Inhalation: diaphragm contracts and flattens, rib cage rises, thoracic volume increases, and pressure falls; exhalation is mainly passive relaxation.

External respiration exchanges O2 and CO2 between alveoli and blood; internal respiration exchanges gases between blood and tissue cells.

Hemoglobin in red blood cells carries most oxygen; most carbon dioxide travels as bicarbonate ions in plasma.

Blood components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets; platelets and clotting factors prevent blood loss.

Heart chambers: right atrium and ventricle send deoxygenated blood to lungs; left atrium and ventricle send oxygenated blood to the body; valves prevent backflow.

Pulmonary circulation goes heart-lungs-heart; systemic circulation goes heart-body-heart; the SA node sets the heartbeat rhythm.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood toward the heart, and capillaries allow exchange; lymph vessels return tissue fluid and carry lymphocytes.

Lymph nodes filter lymph and support immune responses; lymph flow depends on skeletal muscle contraction and valves, not a central pump.

The nephron is the kidney's functional unit: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion produce urine.

The glomerulus filters water, salts, glucose, and urea; useful glucose and most water are reabsorbed in the proximal tubule.

ADH increases water reabsorption in collecting ducts, concentrating urine; aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion.

The kidneys regulate water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance, blood pressure through renin, red blood cell production through erythropoietin, and vitamin D activation.

Negative feedback keeps homeostasis: a rise in plasma osmolarity triggers thirst and ADH release, while a fall suppresses ADH.

Besides kidneys, skin excretes water, salts, and urea in sweat; lungs excrete CO2 and water vapor; liver excretes bile pigments.

Sweat evaporation cools the body; in hot dry air evaporation is faster than in humid air.

Dialysis filters wastes from blood when kidney function fails; normal urine is watery, amber, and usually free of glucose and protein.

Water-salt balance depends on intake, kidney excretion, sweat loss, and hormones; dehydration raises osmolarity and reduces urine output.

CNS is brain and spinal cord; PNS is somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary), with sympathetic fight-or-flight and parasympathetic rest-digest divisions.

A neuron has dendrites, cell body, axon, and axon terminals; myelin speeds conduction, and neurotransmitters cross synapses.

Reflex arc: receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector; reflexes are rapid and involuntary.

Cerebrum handles thought, memory, and voluntary movement; cerebellum coordinates balance and movement; medulla controls breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Meninges and cerebrospinal fluid cushion the brain and spinal cord; the blood-brain barrier limits entry of many substances.

Eye: cornea and lens focus light, iris controls pupil size, retina contains rods for dim light and cones for color; the image is inverted before brain interpretation.

Ear: tympanic membrane and ossicles transmit sound, cochlea detects sound, and semicircular canals detect balance and head position.

Taste buds detect sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami; smell receptors in the nasal epithelium contribute to flavor.

Skin receptors detect touch, pressure, temperature, and pain; adaptation reduces response to a constant stimulus.

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by ductless glands into blood and act on target cells with specific receptors.

Anterior pituitary secretes growth hormone, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, and prolactin; posterior pituitary releases oxytocin and ADH made in the hypothalamus.

Thyroid hormones T3 and T4 raise metabolic rate; calcitonin lowers blood calcium; parathyroid hormone raises blood calcium.

Pancreatic islets: insulin lowers blood glucose, glucagon raises it; diabetes mellitus results from insulin deficiency or resistance.

Adrenal cortex secretes cortisol and aldosterone; adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline for fight-or-flight.

Testes secrete testosterone; ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone; these hormones drive secondary sexual characters and reproduction.

Pineal gland secretes melatonin and thymus supports T-lymphocyte maturation; both influence rhythms and immunity.

Negative feedback controls most hormone axes; iodine deficiency causes goiter and hypothyroidism, while excess thyroid hormone causes hyperthyroidism.

Male reproductive organs: testes produce sperm and testosterone; sperm pass through epididymis, vas deferens, and urethra; seminal vesicles and prostate add fluid.

Female reproductive organs: ovaries release ova; fallopian tubes are the usual site of fertilization; the uterus supports implantation and pregnancy.

Menstrual cycle: menstruation, follicular growth, ovulation around day 14, and luteal phase; endometrium sheds if fertilization does not occur.

WHO defines adolescence as ages 10-19; puberty brings secondary sexual characters and reproductive maturity.

Fertilization joins sperm and ovum to form a zygote; implantation in the endometrium leads to pregnancy.

Contraception methods include barrier, hormonal, intrauterine devices, and sterilization; condoms also reduce sexually transmitted infections.

Reproductive health includes menstrual hygiene, safe pregnancy care, prevention and treatment of STIs, and informed family planning.

Adolescent nutrition needs extra iron for growth and menstrual loss, calcium for bone growth, and adequate protein and energy.

Health is physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely absence of disease; communicable diseases spread by contact, air, water, food, vectors, or blood.

Pathogen groups: bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, and helminths; examples include TB (airborne), cholera (waterborne), malaria (mosquito), and dengue (Aedes mosquito).

Prevention rules: safe drinking water, sanitary excreta disposal, handwashing, vector control, immunization, and isolation of infectious cases.

Active immunity follows infection or vaccination and produces antibodies; passive immunity transfers ready-made antibodies and is short-lived.

ORS replaces water and salts in diarrhea; zinc supplementation reduces diarrhea duration and severity.

DOTS is directly observed treatment for tuberculosis; malaria is caused by Plasmodium and transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes.

Sanitation includes safe disposal of human excreta, sewage, and refuse; stagnant water and open drains increase mosquito breeding.

Personal hygiene includes bathing, oral care, clean clothing, nail trimming, and menstrual hygiene; these reduce skin and intestinal infections.

First aid priorities: preserve life, prevent worsening, and promote recovery; check airway, breathing, and circulation first.

For a burn, cool with clean running water for about 20 minutes; do not apply ice, butter, or oil, and do not burst blisters.

For a suspected fracture, immobilize the limb and avoid moving the person if a spine injury is suspected; for a sprain, use rest, ice, compression, and elevation.

Adult CPR: 30 chest compressions to 2 rescue breaths, compression rate 100-120 per minute, depth about 5-6 cm; use an AED as soon as available.

For choking in a conscious adult, give back blows and abdominal thrusts; for an unconscious choking person, start CPR.

For fainting, lay the person flat and raise the legs; for heat stroke, move to a cool place and cool rapidly while getting medical help.

Do not induce vomiting after ingestion of corrosive or petroleum products; identify the poison and seek poison-control or medical help.

Home nursing skills include measuring temperature, pulse, and respiration, bed bathing, oral rehydration, and turning bedridden patients to prevent pressure sores.

Safety rules: keep medicines and chemicals locked away, use earthing for electrical appliances, and keep fire extinguishers accessible.

Family functions include reproduction, socialization, economic support, protection, and health care; nuclear and joint families are common types.

Community health services include safe water, sanitation, immunization, health education, maternal-child care, and disease surveillance.

Antenatal care includes regular checkups, tetanus immunization, iron-folic acid supplementation, and monitoring for danger signs such as bleeding or severe headache.

Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended for the first 6 months; complementary foods start after 6 months along with continued breastfeeding.

Child health services include growth monitoring, immunization, ORS for diarrhea, and early treatment of pneumonia and malnutrition.

Danger signs in pregnancy include vaginal bleeding, severe headache, blurred vision, swelling of feet and face, and reduced fetal movement; these need urgent care.

Birth spacing improves maternal and child health; family planning methods should be chosen with informed counseling.

ICDS anganwadi centers provide supplementary nutrition, preschool education, and health checkups; ASHA workers link communities to health facilities.

Consumer rights under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 include safety, information, choice, being heard, redressal, and consumer education.

Food labels must show ingredients, net quantity, manufacturing and expiry dates, batch number, and FSSAI mark; MRP is the maximum retail price.

Standard marks: ISI for industrial goods, AGMARK for agricultural products, and Hallmark for gold jewelry; a cash memo is proof of purchase.

Consumer grievances can go to district, state, and national consumer commissions, depending on the claim value.

Adulteration tests: starch in milk is detected by iodine, and chalk in flour by dilute acid; such tests support consumer complaints.

Home resource management classifies resources as human (time, energy, skills) and non-human (money, materials, equipment); budgeting balances income and expenditure.

Work simplification saves time and energy by combining tasks, arranging tools nearby, and using labor-saving equipment.

Waste segregation separates biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste; the 3Rs are reduce, reuse, and recycle.