UPMSP Computer Technology and Maintenance key terms

The smallest unit of digital data, holding exactly one of two states, 0 or 1. Groups of bits form bytes and larger units used to measure memory and storage capacity.

A group of eight bits treated as one unit. It typically stores one character and is the base unit for file sizes, memory capacity, and data transfer measurement.

A base-2 numbering system using only the digits 0 and 1, where each position represents a power of two. Computers use it because electronic circuits reliably distinguish two voltage states.

A base-16 numbering system using digits 0 to 9 and letters A to F. It compactly represents binary values, so it is widely used for memory addresses, colour codes, and MAC addresses.

A character encoding standard that assigns numeric codes to letters, digits, punctuation, and control characters. Standard ASCII uses seven bits and covers 128 characters, forming the basis of later encodings.

A universal character encoding standard designed to represent the writing systems of most languages. Its UTF-8 form is common on the web and supports multilingual text in documents and software.

The main printed circuit board of a computer that connects the processor, memory, storage, and expansion cards. It carries the chipset, firmware, power connectors, and ports that let components communicate.

The central processing unit executes program instructions and performs arithmetic and logical operations. Its performance depends on core count, clock speed, cache size, and instruction architecture.

Random access memory is volatile working storage that holds programs and data currently in use. Its contents are lost when power is removed, and insufficient capacity causes slowdown through swapping.

A switched-mode power supply converts mains AC into the regulated DC voltages the computer needs, such as 12 V, 5 V, and 3.3 V. Wattage rating and connector types must match the system load.

Hard disk drives store data on rotating magnetic platters, while solid-state drives use flash memory with no moving parts. SSDs are faster and shock resistant; HDDs are cheaper per gigabyte.

Any hardware attached to and controlled by the computer to add input, output, or storage functions, such as a keyboard, printer, or scanner. Peripherals connect through ports like USB, HDMI, or Ethernet.

Software that lets the operating system communicate with a specific hardware device by translating generic commands into instructions the device understands. Missing or outdated drivers cause devices to fail.

System software that manages hardware resources, runs applications, and provides a user interface. It handles memory allocation, process scheduling, file systems, and access control for users.

The structure an operating system uses to name, store, and organise files on a storage volume. Examples include FAT32, NTFS, and ext4, which differ in permissions, size limits, and journaling.

A technique where the operating system uses part of the storage drive as an extension of RAM. It prevents crashes when memory runs out but is much slower than physical memory.

A utility that rearranges fragmented files on a hard disk so their pieces are stored contiguously, improving read speed. It is unnecessary and even harmful for solid-state drives.

A diagnostic startup mode that loads only essential drivers and services. Technicians use it to remove stubborn malware, roll back faulty drivers, or repair a system that fails to boot normally.

Firmware stored on the motherboard that initialises hardware at startup and hands control to the boot loader. UEFI is the modern replacement, offering larger disk support and secure boot.

The sequence in which firmware checks storage devices for a bootable operating system. Changing it lets a technician start from a USB drive or optical disc to install or repair software.

Preparing a storage volume for use by writing a file system structure to it. Quick formatting removes the index but leaves data recoverable; full formatting also overwrites and checks sectors.

A logically separate section of a storage drive treated by the operating system as an independent volume. Partitioning allows multiple file systems or operating systems on one physical disk.

A heat-conducting compound applied between the processor and its heat sink to fill microscopic air gaps. Correct application improves heat transfer and prevents overheating and thermal shutdown.

A capability where the operating system automatically detects newly connected hardware and loads the required driver with minimal user configuration. It simplifies installing peripherals such as printers and mice.

Scheduled cleaning, inspection, updating, and testing performed to stop equipment faults before they occur. Typical tasks include removing dust, checking cables, and verifying backups and antivirus updates.

The power-on self-test is a routine run by firmware at startup to check that essential hardware such as memory, processor, and graphics works. Beep codes or screen messages report failures.

An uninterruptible power supply provides battery-backed power so a computer keeps running briefly during outages and shuts down safely. It also filters many voltage spikes and sags.

A numeric label assigned to a device on a network so data can be routed to it. IPv4 addresses are 32-bit; IPv6 addresses are 128-bit and were created to overcome address exhaustion.

A number that identifies which part of an IP address refers to the network and which part identifies the host. It determines whether two devices are on the same local network.

The router address a device sends traffic to when the destination lies outside its own subnet. A wrong or missing gateway prevents access to the internet while local network traffic still works.

The domain name system translates human-readable names such as websites into IP addresses. If DNS fails, browsing by name stops working although connections by numeric address may still succeed.

A unique 48-bit hardware address burned into a network interface card, usually written as six hexadecimal pairs. It operates at the data link layer for communication within a local network.

Any software written to harm, disrupt, or gain unauthorised access to a system, including viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware, and spyware. Protection requires updated antivirus software and cautious user behaviour.

A program that detects, blocks, and removes malicious software using signature databases and behavioural analysis. It must be updated regularly and run scheduled full scans to stay effective.

An isolated storage area where antivirus software moves suspected infected files so they cannot run or spread. The technician can then examine, clean, or delete them safely.

A copy of data kept separately so it can be restored after loss, corruption, or disaster. Effective strategies keep multiple generations and store at least one copy off-site or offline.

Malicious software that encrypts a victim's files and demands payment for the decryption key. Reliable offline backups and prompt patching are the strongest defences against data loss.

An expression beginning with an equals sign that performs calculations on cell references and values. Relative references adjust when copied, while absolute references with dollar signs stay fixed.

Application software for creating and formatting text documents, offering styles, tables, spell checking, and mail merge. Documents are saved in formats such as DOCX or ODT.

A program used to build slide shows combining text, images, charts, and transitions for an audience. Files are commonly saved as PPTX or ODP and can be exported to PDF.

Discarded electrical and electronic equipment such as old computers, monitors, and cartridges. It contains toxic materials and valuable metals, so it must go to authorised recyclers, never ordinary bins.

The process of securely erasing data from storage devices before disposal, resale, or reuse. Methods include overwriting, degaussing magnetic media, and physical destruction of the drive.

Electrostatic discharge is a sudden flow of static electricity that can silently destroy chips and circuit boards. Prevent it with antistatic wrist straps, mats, and by handling cards by their edges.