WB SET key terms

Evaluation carried out during teaching to monitor learning and adjust instruction, usually low-stakes and feedback-oriented. Results inform next steps rather than certify final achievement.

Evaluation conducted at the end of a unit or course to judge overall achievement against standards. It certifies learning and is typically graded, high-stakes, and reported to institutions.

Design principle in which intended learning outcomes, teaching and learning activities, and assessment tasks are mutually consistent, so assessment measures exactly what the stated outcomes describe.

A precise statement of what a learner should be able to demonstrate after instruction, expressed with observable action verbs. It guides content selection, activity design, and assessment criteria.

A hierarchical classification of cognitive processes, from remembering and understanding through applying, analysing, and evaluating to creating. Revised versions help teachers frame objectives at appropriate levels of difficulty.

Mental activity involving analysis, evaluation, synthesis, or creation rather than simple recall. It requires learners to connect, judge, and construct, and is usually assessed through open tasks.

A scoring guide listing criteria and graded descriptions of performance quality. It makes marking transparent and consistent and gives learners explicit targets for improvement.

The extent to which an assessment measures what it claims to measure and supports the inferences drawn from scores. Threats include irrelevant content, ambiguous wording, and construct under-representation.

The consistency of assessment results across occasions, raters, and items. A reliable test yields similar scores for similar performance, though reliability alone does not guarantee accuracy.

An assessment interpreted against a fixed standard of performance rather than against other test-takers. It reports whether specific competencies have been mastered.

An assessment interpreted by comparing a candidate's score with those of a reference group. Results indicate relative standing, such as a percentile rank, not absolute mastery.

Systematic inquiry by practitioners into their own setting, cycling through planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. Its purpose is local improvement of practice rather than generalisable theory.

Deliberate examination of one's own teaching decisions and their effects, often through journals, peer observation, or post-lesson analysis. It converts experience into informed professional judgement.

A structured arrangement in which a colleague observes a lesson and provides feedback for development. It is formative and reciprocal, distinct from supervisory appraisal.

A testable, falsifiable statement predicting a relationship between variables. In educational research it is derived from theory or observation and examined against evidence.

A statement that no difference or relationship exists between the variables under study. Statistical tests assess whether data are improbable enough to reject it.

The threshold probability, conventionally 0.05, below which a result is judged statistically unlikely under the null hypothesis. It sets the acceptable risk of a false positive.

Rejecting a true null hypothesis, that is, reporting an effect that does not exist. Its probability is controlled by the chosen significance level.

Failing to reject a false null hypothesis, that is, missing a real effect. Its probability falls as statistical power and sample size increase.

Any characteristic or attribute that can take different values across cases, such as age, score, or method used. Variables are classified as independent, dependent, or controlled.

The process of selecting a subset of a population for study. Methods range from random and stratified to purposive and convenience, and choice affects generalisability.

The complete set of individuals or cases to which a researcher intends findings to apply. The sample is drawn from it, and its definition bounds the study's claims.

The extent to which findings from a sample or setting can be extended to other people, contexts, or times. It depends on sampling quality and on how far conditions resemble the original study.

The degree to which a tool such as a questionnaire or test produces stable, consistent measurements on repeated use. Common estimates include test-retest and internal consistency coefficients.

The degree to which an instrument measures the construct it is intended to measure. Evidence may be content-based, criterion-related, or derived from construct studies.

A deductive argument with two premises and a conclusion sharing terms, such that the conclusion follows necessarily if the premises are true. Validity concerns form, not factual truth.

Inference from general principles to a specific conclusion that must follow if the premises hold. Its conclusions contain no information beyond what the premises already imply.

Inference from particular observations to a broader generalisation or probable conclusion. It amplifies knowledge but yields conclusions that are probable rather than certain.

A comparison asserting that a relationship holding between one pair of items also holds between another. In reasoning tests it usually requires identifying and applying a shared relation.

An error in reasoning that makes an argument invalid or unsound, such as begging the question, false dilemma, or ad hominem attack. Fallacies may persuade despite defective logic.

An unstated premise an argument relies on to reach its conclusion. Identifying assumptions is central to evaluating whether reasoning is sound.

A conclusion drawn from given information rather than stated outright. In comprehension tests, valid inferences must be supported by the passage, not by outside knowledge.

The central point a passage or argument is organised around, often stated in a topic sentence or implied across paragraphs. It differs from supporting detail and from mere topic.

The writer's attitude towards the subject, conveyed through word choice and phrasing, for example ironic, cautious, or approving. It is inferred rather than stated directly.

A formal change to the text of the Constitution carried out under the procedure laid down in Article 368. It alters the constitutional document itself rather than ordinary statute.

The principle, established in Kesavananda Bharati (1973), that Parliament cannot amend the Constitution so as to destroy its essential features, such as secularism or judicial review.

The power of courts to examine legislative and executive action for conformity with the Constitution and to declare it void when inconsistent. It is a core feature of Indian constitutionalism.

Principles governing conduct in research, including informed consent, confidentiality, avoidance of harm, honesty in reporting, and fair treatment of participants and collaborators.

Voluntary agreement to participate in research given after receiving clear information about purpose, procedures, risks, and the right to withdraw. It is documented and revocable.

Presenting another person's words, ideas, data, or structure as one's own without adequate attribution. It includes unattributed paraphrase and self-plagiarism in some policies.

A reference identifying the source of a borrowed idea, quotation, or datum, following a recognised style. Accurate citation allows verification and credits original authors.

The demonstrated capacity to plan, deliver, and evaluate instruction effectively, combining subject knowledge with classroom management, communication, and responsiveness to learners' needs.