Ethics: Indian and Western Moral Theories
Frameworks
The exam tests normative theories and their Indian counterparts. Western: utilitarianism (Bentham's hedonic calculus; Mill's greatest happiness, quality of pleasures), Kantian deontology (categorical imperative: universalizability and humanity formula), virtue ethics (Aristotle's eudaimonia and phronesis), egoism. Indian: dharma and the puruṣārthas; Bhagavadgītā's niṣkāma karma (action without attachment to results); Buddhist śīla, karuṇā and the middle path; Jaina ahiṃsā and anekāntavāda. A theory is judged by its criterion: consequences, duty, or character.
Worked example
Lying to save an innocent person. Kant: the maxim 'lie when it helps' cannot be universalized without destroying trust in promises, so lying is wrong regardless of consequences. Mill: consider total happiness; lying may be justified if it prevents greater harm, but rule-utilitarians ask which rule maximizes utility. The reasoning differs over consequences and universalizability.
Traps
Do not equate utilitarianism with selfishness; it is impartial welfare-maximization. Do not say Kant ignores results entirely; he locates moral worth in duty, not outcome. Do not reduce Indian ethics to 'karma' as fatalism; niṣkāma karma is disciplined action. Do not conflate ahiṃsā with passivity.