Hokkaido Entrance English key terms

A conclusion a reader draws from clues in the text rather than from a statement written out directly. The answer must be supported by evidence, but the writer never says it in so many words.

The single central point a paragraph or passage is built to convey. Everything else in the text either supports it, illustrates it, or qualifies it.

A sentence, usually near the start of an argumentative essay, that states the position the writer will defend. The rest of the passage is organized to support or qualify it.

The sentence that announces what a single paragraph is about, often placed first. Later sentences in the paragraph explain, illustrate, or limit that opening statement.

An assertion the writer asks the reader to accept. In argumentative passages a claim must be backed by reasons and evidence, and is often the target of an opposing view.

A view that opposes the writer's position, presented in the text so it can be answered. Recognizing it helps you see where the writer concedes a point and where the writer pushes back.

A point where the writer admits that the opposing side has some validity before restating the main position. Signals include 'admittedly', 'it is true that', and 'granted'.

The part of an argument where the writer explains why the opposing view is wrong or limited. It usually follows a concession and returns the reader to the writer's own claim.

Facts, examples, statistics, or quotations offered to support a claim. Judging whether evidence is relevant and sufficient is a common reading-comprehension task.

Something the text suggests without stating it outright, often because the writer assumes the reader will fill in the gap. Questions about implication usually ask what the writer believes or expects.

The attitude the writer conveys toward the subject, such as critical, cautious, enthusiastic, or ironic. Word choice and sentence rhythm are the main clues to it.

The writer's stance toward the topic or the reader, revealed through evaluative words and emphasis. Distinguish it from tone: attitude is more about position, tone about feeling.

The position a writer takes on an issue, whether supportive, skeptical, or neutral. Identifying stance early helps you predict how the rest of the passage will develop.

The reason the writer produced the text, such as to inform, persuade, criticize, or explain a process. Purpose questions ask what the author is trying to accomplish, not what the text says.

The readers the writer has in mind, which shapes how much background is explained and how formal the language is. A text for specialists assumes knowledge that a text for the public must supply.

A group of sentences developing one point, marked by indentation or a line break. In exam passages, each paragraph usually performs one function in the overall argument.

The surrounding words, sentences, or situation that determine how a particular expression should be understood. A word's meaning in context can differ sharply from its dictionary entry.

The emotional or evaluative coloring a word carries beyond its literal meaning, as 'childlike' differs from 'childish'. Translating well often means matching connotation, not just denotation.

The literal, dictionary meaning of a word, apart from any emotional coloring. It is the base that connotation modifies, and the two can pull in different directions.

A habitual word pairing that native users expect, such as 'make a decision' rather than 'do a decision'. Unnatural collocations are a frequent cause of lost marks in composition.

A fixed expression whose meaning cannot be worked out from its individual words, such as 'take something for granted'. Idioms rarely translate word for word into Japanese.

Restating a passage in different words while keeping the meaning. Japanese translation questions often require paraphrase rather than a word-for-word rendering of the English.

Rendering each English word or phrase with its direct Japanese counterpart, preserving word order where possible. It is useful as a first draft but often produces unnatural or unclear Japanese.

Adjusting a translation so it reads as if originally written in Japanese, changing word order, adding subjects, or splitting long sentences. Meaning is preserved while the surface form is rebuilt.

The level of formality a text uses, from casual speech to academic prose. Translation and composition must keep register consistent with the original or the intended reader.

The way a pronoun or demonstrative points back to an earlier noun phrase, as 'this' may refer to a whole preceding clause. Tracking reference is essential for both reading and translation.

The word or phrase that a pronoun or other referring expression stands for. When several nouns precede a pronoun, grammar and meaning together decide which is the antecedent.

The way sentences are tied together by connectors, pronouns, and repeated or substituted words so the text reads as one unit rather than separate statements.

The logical flow of ideas in a text, so each part follows sensibly from the last. Cohesion is the surface linking; coherence is the underlying sense of order.

A word or phrase such as 'however', 'therefore', or 'in addition' that signals the logical relation between clauses or sentences. Choosing the right connector is central to paragraph-ordering tasks.

A relation in which two ideas are set against each other, often marked by 'although', 'whereas', 'by contrast', or 'on the other hand'. Missing a contrast signal can reverse the meaning of a sentence.

A relation in which one event or condition produces another, signaled by words like 'because', 'lead to', 'result in', and 'consequently'. Distinguishing cause from result prevents mistranslation.

The sequence in which paragraphs must be arranged so the text moves logically from introduction through development to conclusion. Reference words and connectors usually reveal the correct sequence.

A shortened restatement of a text's main points in your own words, leaving out examples and repetition. It should preserve the writer's emphasis, not add personal opinion.

The decision about where a controlling sentence goes in a paragraph you write, usually first for clarity. Placing it later can work for emphasis but risks confusing the reader.

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number, as in 'the list of items is long'. Long intervening phrases often hide the true subject and cause errors.

A group of words containing a subject and a verb. A main clause can stand alone; a subordinate clause cannot and must be attached to a main clause.

A pronoun such as 'who', 'which', or 'that' that introduces a clause describing a noun. It can be omitted only when it is the object of the clause.

The arrangement of words and phrases into grammatical sentences. Syntax questions test whether you can identify the function of each part of a sentence.

A situation in which a sentence or word can be understood in more than one way. In translation, ambiguity must usually be resolved by the surrounding context.