KY Water Operator cheat sheet

Groundwater moves through pores and fractures at rates typically measured in feet per day; surface water in rivers moves in feet per second, so contamination reaches a river intake far faster than a well.

Safe yield of a wellfield equals the long-term withdrawal rate that does not exceed recharge; sustained pumping beyond safe yield causes water-level decline, land subsidence, and saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers.

A watershed (drainage basin) is all land draining to a common point; delineate it by topographic contours on USGS quadrangle maps, then verify with dye tracing or flow monitoring where karst or storm sewers complicate the surface divide.

Source Water Assessment Program (SWAP) reports under SDWA list potential contaminant sources within the delineated area and rate each source's susceptibility; states must update these assessments on a cycle and make results public.

Wellhead protection areas are commonly drawn with a calculated fixed radius, a time-of-travel radius (often 1-year, 5-year, and 10-year zones), or an analytical flow model; the 1-year zone receives the strictest land-use controls.

Intake siting favors deep, upstream locations away from tributary mouths and boat traffic; a low-flow drought record, not average flow, sets the design low-water elevation for intake capacity and fish screening.

Turbidity in source water rises sharply after rainfall; monitor raw turbidity and run-off turbidity continuously so coagulation and filtration adjustments precede, not follow, the arrival of the turbidity peak at the plant.

Karst terrain and unsealed abandoned wells create direct pathways for surface runoff to enter aquifers; a dye trace confirming a connection means the surface source is effectively groundwater under the direct influence (GWUDI) and requires full treatment.

The Safe Drinking Water Act authorizes EPA to set National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; states with primacy enforce them, issue permits, and conduct sanitary surveys.

Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) is an enforceable limit; Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) is the non-enforceable health goal. For carcinogens the MCLG is often zero while the MCL is set as close as feasible.

Treatment Technique (TT) rules replace MCLs where monitoring every sample is infeasible: examples include turbidity limits for filtered systems and lead/copper corrosion control under the Lead and Copper Rule.

Total coliform Rule compliance: no more than 5.0% of routine samples may be positive for systems collecting 40 or more per month; any positive routine sample triggers repeat sampling at that site plus upstream and downstream locations within 24 hours.

A Tier 1 public notice (violations posing immediate risk, such as E. coli MCL or exceedance of a nitrate MCL) must be delivered within 24 hours; Tier 2 within 30 days; Tier 3 in the next annual Consumer Confidence Report.

The Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) is due to customers by July 1 each year covering the prior calendar year, must list detected contaminants, MCLs, MCLGs, health effects language, and source water information.

Stage 2 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule sets locational running annual averages for TTHM (0.080 mg/L) and HAA5 (0.060 mg/L), calculated at each monitoring location rather than system-wide.

The Revised Total Coliform Rule replaced the MCL for total coliform with an assessment-and-corrective-action framework: an E. coli positive triggers a Level 2 assessment, and repeat coliform positives can trigger a Level 1 assessment.

Coagulation destabilizes particle charge; the common coagulants are aluminum sulfate (alum), ferric chloride, ferric sulfate, and polyaluminum chloride, with typical doses in the range of a few to tens of mg/L.

Optimum coagulant dose and pH are found by jar testing: rapid mix at about 200-300 rpm for 10-60 seconds, then slow mix and settle, then measure turbidity; the dose giving minimum settled turbidity wins.

Alum consumes alkalinity: roughly 0.45 mg/L of alkalinity as CaCO3 is consumed per mg/L of alum dosed, so low-alkalinity waters need lime or caustic addition to hold pH in the coagulation range.

The alum coagulation optimum pH is generally about 5.5 to 6.8, while iron salts work well from about 4.5 to 6.0 for color removal and higher for turbidity; always confirm with jar tests rather than assuming.

Zeta potential near zero indicates charge neutralization; sweep floc coagulation instead relies on enmeshment in a metal hydroxide precipitate and tolerates a wider pH range.

Rapid mix velocity gradient (G) is typically 250-1,000 per second for 10-60 seconds; flocculation G drops to about 10-75 per second for 15-45 minutes so floc grows without shear breakup.

Sedimentation design uses surface overflow rate (flow divided by surface area), typically 0.3-1.0 gpm/ft2 for alum floc in conventional basins; detention time of 2-4 hours is common.

Weir loading rate (flow divided by total weir length) above roughly 10-20 gpm/ft is associated with floc carryover and short-circuiting; baffling and inlet energy dissipation reduce density currents.

Rapid sand filters remove particles by straining, sedimentation onto media, interception, and attachment; media effective size (d10) and uniformity coefficient (d60/d10) govern hydraulic behavior and are specified for the media.

Conventional dual-media filters use about 12-18 inches of anthracite (specific gravity near 1.5) over 8-12 inches of sand (specific gravity near 2.65); the lighter, coarser anthracite stays on top after backwash.

Filter loading rate is flow divided by filter area, typically 2-6 gpm/ft2 for rapid gravity filters; exceeding the design rate raises effluent turbidity and shortens runs.

Backwash by fluidization: media expands roughly 15-25% at water temperatures near 20 C, with backwash rates around 15-20 gpm/ft2 for sand; colder water needs higher rates for the same expansion.

Filter-to-waste, slow starts, and backwash turbidity peaking control the initial turbidity spike after backwash; returning a filter to service before the spike passes sends particles to the clearwell.

Combined filter effluent turbidity must stay at or below 0.3 NTU in at least 95% of monthly measurements for conventional and direct filtration, with no single reading above 1 NTU.

Filter run termination is triggered by headloss limit (often 6-10 ft), turbidity breakthrough, or a maximum run time; operating to exhaustion risks releasing particles.

Membrane and slow sand alternatives: slow sand filters use 30-48 inches of fine sand at 0.05-0.15 gpm/ft2 and are cleaned by scraping the schmutzdecke; membranes are rated by pore size and verified by integrity testing.

CT is the product of disinfectant residual concentration (mg/L) and contact time (minutes); required CT depends on disinfectant, pH, temperature, and log inactivation credit, and is compared to the actual CT in the basin.

Baffling factor (t10/T) reflects short-circuiting; a well-baffled basin may earn a baffling factor near 0.7, while an unbaffled pipe or basin may be 0.1-0.3, directly cutting credited contact time.

Chlorine demand is the difference between dose and residual; free chlorine residual must be maintained throughout distribution, commonly at least 0.2 mg/L detectable and a measurable residual at every sampling point.

Chlorine species shift with pH: at pH below about 6.5 hypochlorous acid (HOCl) dominates and is far more biocidal than hypochlorite ion (OCl-); above pH 8.5 the ion dominates.

Chloramination forms fewer regulated THMs and HAAs but requires free chlorine contact first, careful chlorine-to-ammonia ratio control (about 4-5:1 by weight), and nitrification monitoring in the distribution system.

Ozone and UV: UV dose is reported in mJ/cm2 and is effective against Cryptosporidium at low doses, but UV provides no residual; ozone is a powerful oxidant with no lasting residual either.

DBP precursors are natural organic matter; enhanced coagulation (lowering pH and raising coagulant dose to meet a TOC removal percentage) is the primary control, with granular activated carbon as an alternative.

Disinfectant residual and DBP samples must be taken at the same distribution locations; the LRAA is the running annual average of quarterly averages at each site, so one high quarter can push a site out of compliance.

Minimum distribution pressure under normal conditions is typically 20 psi at ground level; during fire flow the residual must not drop below 20 psi anywhere, and higher service pressures (40-80 psi) are usual for customer service.

Design flow combines maximum day demand plus fire flow; fire flow requirements come from the local ISO or fire authority and commonly range from 500 to 3,500 gpm for several hours.

Hazen-Williams headloss: hf = 10.44 * L * Q^1.852 / (C^1.852 * d^4.87) in US customary units with Q in cfs and d in ft; C is about 130-140 for new cement-lined ductile iron and lower for old unlined steel.

Water main sizing keeps velocity in the range of about 2-5 ft/s for normal demand; below roughly 2 ft/s sediment settles, and above about 10 ft/s scour and water hammer risk rise.

Dead-end mains and storage tanks are managed by flushing programs; unidirectional flushing in the direction of normal flow scours at 5 ft/s or more and removes biofilm and sediment.

Storage tanks: floating storage on the system maintains pressure and turnover; an elevated tank's height above grade sets static pressure at about 0.433 psi per foot of head.

Disinfection of new or repaired mains follows AWWA C651: chlorinate to 25 mg/L for 24 hours or 50 mg/L for 24 hours depending on method, flush, then obtain satisfactory bacteriological samples before placing in service.

A cross-connection control device is required at any connection where backflow could occur; a reduced-pressure principle assembly is required for high-hazard connections and must be tested annually.

Total dynamic head (TDH) = static lift + discharge head + friction losses + velocity head; the pump must be selected so its curve intersects the system curve at the design flow.

Pump affinity laws: flow varies with speed, head with speed squared, and power with speed cubed; a 10% speed reduction cuts power by about 27%.

Brake horsepower = (Q * TDH) / (3960 * pump efficiency) with Q in gpm and TDH in feet; wire-to-water efficiency multiplies pump efficiency by motor efficiency.

Best efficiency point (BEP) is where the pump runs most efficiently; operating far left of BEP causes recirculation and heat, far right causes cavitation and motor overload.

NPSH available = atmospheric pressure head + static suction head - vapor pressure head - suction friction losses; it must exceed NPSH required by a margin (commonly 2-3 ft) to avoid cavitation.

Centrifugal pumps are started with the discharge valve closed and primed; positive displacement pumps must never be run against a closed discharge without a relief valve.

Motor current unbalance above about 5-10% indicates voltage unbalance or a winding problem; voltage unbalance causes heating and shortens motor life.

Water hammer pressure surge equals a * delta-V / g for rapid closure, where a is wave speed (about 3,000-4,000 ft/s in steel pipe); surge relief valves, air valves, and slow-closing valves control it.

Backsiphonage is caused by negative or reduced pressure in the supply main; backpressure is caused by a downstream pressure exceeding supply pressure, such as from a boiler or booster pump.

Air gap is the highest protection and requires a physical separation of at least twice the effective pipe diameter, with a minimum of 1 inch.

Reduced pressure principle assembly (RPZ) protects against both backpressure and backsiphonage and is used for high hazards; it must be tested at installation and at least annually.

Double check valve assembly protects against backpressure and backsiphonage for low hazards only and is not approved for high-hazard or toxic connections.

Pressure vacuum breaker and atmospheric vacuum breaker protect against backsiphonage only; an AVB must have no downstream shutoff valve and must be installed at least 6 inches above the highest downstream outlet.

A hose bibb vacuum breaker is a non-testable device for residential hose connections; it does not replace a containment assembly where a high hazard exists.

The containment approach places the assembly at the meter or service line; the isolation approach places devices at each internal hazard, and many programs require both.

Backflow assembly testers must be certified; test reports record the device make, model, serial number, location, and the gauge readings, and are submitted to the water utility within the required interval.

Sample containers: bacteriological samples go in sterile, sodium thiosulfate-treated bottles to neutralize chlorine; samples must be collected from a clean, aerated tap after flushing.

Bacteriological holding time is 30 hours from collection to initiation of analysis for drinking water; chemical samples generally have 14-day or 6-month holding times depending on the analyte and preservation.

Total coliform presence is confirmed by a positive presence/absence test or membrane filtration; a positive result requires repeat samples within 24 hours and investigation of the cause.

Turbidity is measured by nephelometry in NTU; the instrument is calibrated with formazin or approved polymer standards, and the standard method requires at least monthly calibration checks.

pH measurement requires a two-point calibration with buffers bracketing the sample range (commonly pH 4, 7, and 10), and the meter must be temperature-compensated or the sample temperature recorded.

Free and total chlorine are measured by DPD colorimetry or amperometric titration; the DPD method's color develops within about one minute for free chlorine and requires a separate total chlorine reagent.

Nitrate is measured by ion chromatography, cadmium reduction, or nitrate electrode; nitrate is reported as N or as NO3, and the MCL of 10 mg/L as N equals 45 mg/L as NO3.

Chain of custody documentation, sample preservation with acid to pH below 2 for metals, and recording the exact collection time and site are required for defensible compliance samples.

Confined space entry requires an entry permit, atmospheric testing for oxygen (19.5-23.5%), combustible gas, and hydrogen sulfide before entry, plus a standby attendant and rescue plan.

Chlorine gas is heavier than air and toxic; the IDLH is 10 ppm, and the odor threshold is around 0.3 ppm. Gas rooms need a low-point ventilation intake, a scrubber, and an escape respirator or SCBA.

Sodium hypochlorite and acid must never be mixed: mixing hypochlorite with acid releases chlorine gas; store them separately with secondary containment.

Lockout/tagout requires isolating all energy sources, verifying zero energy, and applying locks and tags by each worker before maintenance on pumps, motors, or valves.

Hydrogen sulfide is heavier than air, deadens the sense of smell at higher concentrations, and is immediately dangerous above 100 ppm; never rely on odor for detection.

Water utility security measures include fencing, locked hatches and vaults, intrusion alarms, background checks for staff, and a vulnerability assessment under the Bioterrorism Act for systems serving 3,300 or more people.

Emergency response plans identify critical customers, mutual aid agreements, emergency water sources, and a public notification chain; test the plan with exercises and update contact lists regularly.

Electrical safety: treat all circuits as energized until tested, use ground-fault protection on temporary power, and keep appropriate fire extinguishers (Class C for energized electrical) accessible.

Operators must keep records of daily chlorine residual, turbidity, coagulant dose, filter run data, and pumpage; most states require retention for at least 3 years, and some records for 5 or 10 years.

Monthly operating reports summarize compliance data and are submitted to the state by a set date (often the 10th of the following month); late or incomplete reports can be violations.

The Consumer Confidence Report must be delivered by July 1 and kept for at least 5 years; it must include detected contaminants, MCLs, MCLGs, and health effects language.

Operator certification is graded by system classification (e.g., Class I through IV) and by treatment versus distribution; the operator must hold a certificate at least equal to the system's classification.

Continuing education units (CEUs) or contact hours are required for renewal, commonly 20-30 hours per 2-3 year cycle depending on state and certificate grade, with a portion often required in approved subjects.

A certified operator of record must be designated for each system; if that operator leaves, the utility must notify the state and designate a replacement within the state's deadline.

Sanitary surveys are conducted by the state every 3 to 5 years for community systems and cover source, treatment, distribution, finished water storage, pumps, and management; significant deficiencies must be corrected on a schedule.

Records supporting compliance must be legible, dated, signed by the person who performed the work, and available for state inspection; electronic records must be backed up and retrievable.