AAK PPL (Kazakhstan) cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2 Rules of the Air: VFR minima in controlled airspace at and above 3050 m (10000 ft) AMSL - 8 km flight visibility and 1500 m horizontal, 300 m (1000 ft) vertical distance from cloud.

Below 3050 m AMSL in Class C/D airspace: flight visibility 5 km, distance from cloud 1500 m horizontally and 300 m vertically; a special VFR clearance is required when minima cannot be met.

ICAO Annex 1 class 2 medical: valid 12 months for commercial operations up to age 40, then 6 months; private pilot privileges require a valid class 2 or equivalent national medical certificate.

Squawk 7700 = general emergency, 7600 = radio communication failure, 7500 = unlawful interference; 7000 is the VFR conspicuity code in ICAO airspace.

Right-of-way: converging aircraft of the same category - the one on the right has right of way; an aircraft overtaking another passes on the right; landing aircraft have priority over aircraft on the ground.

Aircraft on final approach or landing has right of way over aircraft taxiing; when two aircraft approach head-on, both turn right.

Anti-collision lights and navigation lights are required at night; position lights: red on left wingtip, green on right wingtip, white on tail.

Kazakhstan AIP and NOTAM are the authoritative sources for airspace, aerodrome and route data; ATC clearance must be obtained before entering controlled airspace.

VFR flight at night (where permitted) requires instrument rating privileges or specific national authorisation; do not assume night VFR is allowed by default.

Hypoxia symptoms begin around 3050 m (10000 ft) cabin altitude in unacclimatised persons; supplemental oxygen is required above 3050 m for flights over 30 minutes and above 3650 m continuously.

Time of useful consciousness at 7600 m (25000 ft) is roughly 3–5 minutes; at 10700 m (35000 ft) roughly 30–60 seconds.

Hyperventilation produces dizziness, tingling and tetany; treatment is to slow breathing rate - do not assume hypoxia without checking oxygen supply first.

Spatial disorientation: the somatogravic illusion during acceleration feels like a climb; rely on instruments, not vestibular sensations, in IMC.

Coriolis illusion is provoked by a head movement during a prolonged turn; the false sensation of turning in another axis can cause loss of control.

Night vision uses rods, which are slow to adapt (20–30 minutes) and are destroyed by bright light; avoid white light and use red lighting where available.

Carbon monoxide is odourless and binds haemoglobin ~200–250 times more strongly than oxygen; suspect it with headache, nausea and confusion in cabin heat operations.

Alcohol: even small amounts degrade judgement and reaction time; effects persist after blood alcohol falls, and fatigue compounds the impairment.

Standard atmosphere: sea level 1013.25 hPa, 15 °C, temperature lapse rate 1.98 °C per 1000 ft up to 36090 ft (11 km).

QNH set on the subscale gives altitude above mean sea level; QFE gives height above the aerodrome reference point; QNE (1013.25) gives flight level.

Pressure altitude = indicated altitude + (1013 − QNH) × 30 ft per hPa (approximately).

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature at that level); high density altitude degrades take-off and climb performance.

ISA temperature at altitude = 15 °C − 2 °C per 1000 ft; e.g. at 5000 ft, ISA = 5 °C.

Wind is named by the direction it comes from; magnetic variation converts true wind to magnetic for flight planning.

Fog forms when the dewpoint spread is small (≤ 2 °C) and the air cools to saturation; radiation fog is typical of clear, calm nights.

Cumulonimbus implies severe turbulence, icing, hail and microburst risk; avoid by at least 20 km (10 NM) laterally and do not attempt to overfly.

Icing is most likely between 0 °C and −20 °C in visible moisture; structural icing increases weight and drag and reduces lift.

1 NM = 1852 m; 1 kt = 1 NM/h; 1 m/s ≈ 1.944 kt; 1 ft = 0.3048 m.

True course ± variation = magnetic course; magnetic course ± deviation = compass course (TVMDC: True Virgins Make Dull Company).

Wind triangle: heading = course − wind correction angle; groundspeed = TAS + tailwind component (or − headwind).

1 in 60 rule: a 1° tracking error over 60 NM produces 1 NM off track; drift correction (°) ≈ (distance off track / distance flown) × 60.

Time to a waypoint = distance / groundspeed; fuel required = fuel flow × time, plus reserve.

Great circle distance in NM ≈ 60 × angular distance in degrees; 1 minute of latitude = 1 NM.

VOR radial: the CDI centres when the selected OBS matches the radial from the station; TO/FROM flag indicates whether the selected course leads to or from the station.

GPS position error in a non-augmented receiver is typically a few metres; RAIM availability must be checked for IFR use.

Dead reckoning requires accurate heading, TAS, wind and time; cross-check with ground features or radio navigation at least every 15–20 minutes.

Four-stroke cycle: induction, compression, combustion (power), exhaust; two crankshaft revolutions per complete cycle.

Mixture control: lean for altitude to keep the fuel/air ratio near optimum; excessively lean mixture raises cylinder head temperature and can cause detonation.

Carburettor icing is most likely at outside air temperatures between −10 °C and +15 °C with high humidity; apply carburettor heat before reducing power.

Magnetos are independent ignition sources; a mag check at run-up should show a small RPM drop on each, and a large drop or roughness indicates a fault.

Pitot-static system: pitot tube supplies dynamic pressure, static port supplies static pressure; blockage of the static port makes the altimeter and airspeed indicator read incorrectly.

Altimeter setting: subscale in hPa; 1 hPa ≈ 30 ft; set QNH from the nearest reporting station before approach.

Electrical system: alternator/generator charges the battery and supplies loads; the ammeter shows charge or discharge; a failed alternator leaves battery-only operation for a limited time.

Fuel system: gravity feed or pump feed; check for water and contamination during pre-flight; know usable vs unusable fuel.

Load factor increases in turns: n = 1 / cos(bank angle); at 60° bank the load factor is 2 g and the stall speed rises by about 41%.

Mass and balance: total mass = empty mass + crew + passengers + baggage + fuel; centre of gravity must lie within the forward and aft limits for all phases.

Moment = mass × arm; CG position = total moment / total mass; use the loading graph or table in the AFM/POH.

Take-off and landing distances increase with mass, altitude, temperature and tailwind; decrease with headwind and lower density altitude.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature); performance charts are usually based on pressure altitude and temperature.

Climb gradient (%) = (climb rate in ft/min × 60) / (groundspeed in kt × 101.3); a 5% gradient at 100 kt requires about 507 ft/min.

Fuel planning: trip fuel + contingency + alternate + final reserve; final reserve for VFR is typically 30 minutes at cruise fuel flow (check national rules).

Landing distance required must not exceed landing distance available; add a safety factor of 1.43 for dry runways or 1.67 for wet/contaminated where required.

Crosswind component = wind speed × sin(angle between wind and runway); headwind component = wind speed × cos(angle).

Weight and balance must be recomputed after refuelling and loading; an aft CG reduces stability and can make stall recovery difficult.

Lift = ½ × ρ × V² × S × CL; lift increases with the square of airspeed and with air density.

Induced drag decreases with speed; parasite drag increases with the square of speed; total drag is minimum at the speed for best glide (L/D max).

Critical angle of attack is fixed for a given wing; stall occurs when it is exceeded regardless of speed, attitude or weight.

Stall speed increases with the square root of load factor: VS(new) = VS × √n.

Best angle of climb (VX) gives maximum height gain per unit distance; best rate of climb (VY) gives maximum height gain per unit time.

In a steady turn, load factor n = 1 / cos(bank); at 60° bank, n = 2.

Adverse yaw: the down-going aileron produces more induced drag, yawing the nose away from the turn; coordinated with rudder.

Dihedral gives lateral stability; sweepback and keel effect also contribute; too much stability reduces manoeuvrability.

Ground effect reduces induced drag and increases lift when the wing is within about one wingspan of the surface.

Pre-flight: check documents (AROC, certificate of registration, certificate of airworthiness, licence, medical, mass and balance, operational flight plan), NOTAMs and weather.

Passenger briefing must cover seat belts, exits, oxygen (if fitted), smoking prohibition and emergency procedures.

Before take-off: complete the checklist, set altimeter to QNH, check fuel quantity and selector, trim, flaps and transponder.

Emergency: maintain aircraft control, analyse, communicate; declare emergency with MAYDAY (distress) or PAN PAN (urgency).

Engine failure after take-off: lower the nose to maintain best glide speed, select a landing area, attempt restart per checklist, then land.

Fire: shut off fuel and electrics as appropriate, use the extinguisher, land as soon as practicable.

Radio failure in VFR: squawk 7600, continue VFR, land at the nearest suitable aerodrome and report to ATC.

Wake turbulence: stay above and upwind of a heavy aircraft's flight path; wait at least 2 minutes for a heavy aircraft to land before taking off behind it.

Standard call: station called, own call sign, position, altitude, intention; e.g. "Tower, Cessna 12345, 10 miles south, 2500 ft, inbound for landing".

Read-back is mandatory for clearances, runway assignments, altimeter settings, headings and frequencies.

Phonetic alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Numbers: 3 = tree, 5 = fife, 9 = niner; transmit digits separately for frequencies and headings (e.g. "one two three decimal four five").

MAYDAY ×3 for distress; PAN PAN ×3 for urgency; both followed by call sign, nature of problem and intentions.

Squawk codes: 7700 emergency, 7600 radio failure, 7500 hijack; 7000 VFR in ICAO airspace.

Position reports include time, position, altitude/flight level, next position and ETA.

Use standard phraseology: "roger", "wilco", "affirm", "negative", "standby", "say again"; avoid non-standard terms on frequency.

Skill test tolerances (PPL): altitude ±100 ft, heading ±10°, airspeed ±10 kt, and ±5° bank in level flight unless specified otherwise.

Pre-flight inspection must follow the AFM/POH checklist; the candidate must identify and explain defects.

Manoeuvres assessed typically include: pre-flight, taxi, take-off, climb, straight and level, turns, slow flight, stalls, spin awareness, emergency descent, approach and landing.

Stall recovery: reduce angle of attack, apply power, level wings, then recover to the required flight path - do not use aileron before the stall is broken.

Emergency procedures: engine failure, forced landing, fire, radio failure and go-around must be demonstrated to the required standard.

Navigation exercise: plan a cross-country, calculate heading, time and fuel, and maintain track within the tolerance using visual references and radio aids.

The examiner may simulate ATC and emergency scenarios; responses must use standard phraseology and correct priority (aviate, navigate, communicate).

A failed item may be repeated once at the examiner's discretion; a second failure of the same item results in an unsatisfactory test.

After the test, the examiner completes the skill test report and the licence application is submitted with the required documents and fees.