LGCSE Travel and Tourism (0194) cheat sheet

Tourism is defined as the activities of people travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for less than one consecutive year, for leisure, business or other purposes.

The tourism product is a composite: transport, accommodation, attractions, catering and services are purchased as one experience, so quality depends on every supplier in the chain.

Inbound tourism = visitors arriving in a country; outbound tourism = residents of a country travelling abroad; domestic tourism = residents travelling within their own country.

The visitor is the unit of measurement: an international visitor is a traveller outside their usual environment for under 12 months whose main purpose is not employment. Same-day visitors (excursionsists) count as visitors but not as tourists.

The tourism system links four elements: the generating region (source market), the transit route, the destination region, and the wider environment (economic, political, social, technological).

Tourism is an invisible export for the destination: inbound visitor spending earns foreign currency, while outbound spending is an import for the source country.

Leakage is the share of tourist spending that leaves the destination economy through imported goods, foreign-owned operators or profit repatriation; high leakage reduces net economic benefit.

Multiplier effect: each unit of tourist spending generates further rounds of income as it is re-spent locally; the size of the multiplier rises with the proportion of spending retained in the local economy.

Tourism is labour-intensive and fragmented: many small and medium enterprises, seasonal demand, and interdependence between public and private sectors.

The industry is conventionally grouped into accommodation, food and beverage, transport, attractions, travel agents and tour operators, and tourist information/ancillary services.

Transport modes: air (long haul, high speed), rail (short haul, city links), road/coach (flexible, low cost), sea (cruise and ferries). Choice depends on distance, cost, time, comfort and baggage.

Scheduled airlines sell seats directly and through agents; low-cost carriers use point-to-point routes, secondary airports and ancillary revenue (bags, seat selection, food).

Charter flights are contracted by tour operators for a season; the operator bears the risk of unsold seats, unlike a scheduled carrier selling seat by seat.

Travel agents act as intermediaries, advising and booking on behalf of principals (airlines, hotels); tour operators assemble components into a package and take principal risk.

Accommodation types range from serviced (hotels, with star ratings based on facilities and services) to non-serviced (self-catering, camping, hostels); room occupancy and RevPAR are key performance measures.

Attractions are either natural or built, and either free or charged; they are the pull factor that motivates travel, while transport and accommodation are enablers.

Interdependence example: an airline strike, hotel closure or festival cancellation affects the whole chain, because the visitor buys an integrated experience from several providers.

Ancillary services include insurance, foreign exchange, car rental, tourist information centres, guiding and retail; they add value and revenue per visitor.

Service is intangible, perishable, inseparable from the provider and variable in quality; these characteristics make consistent delivery harder than for goods.

The service encounter is the moment of contact between customer and staff; the 'moment of truth' is any point where the customer forms a judgement about the organisation.

The gap model: customer expectations versus management perception, service design, delivery and communication; a gap at any stage produces dissatisfaction.

SERVQUAL dimensions: reliability, assurance, tangibles, empathy and responsiveness; reliability (doing it right first time) is usually rated most important.

Complaint handling sequence: listen without interrupting, apologise, acknowledge the problem, resolve or offer options, follow up. Service recovery can produce higher loyalty than a faultless encounter.

Customer expectations are shaped by word of mouth, past experience, price, brand promises and the behaviour of other customers.

Accessibility and inclusive service: step-free access, clear signage, dietary and religious needs, and language support widen the market and are legal requirements in many countries.

Consumer protection in packages: the organiser is responsible for the performance of the travel services included, and the customer is entitled to information before purchase and redress after failure.

Measuring satisfaction uses surveys, net promoter score, review platforms and mystery shopping; feedback should feed back into staff training and service standards.

Destination appeal rests on climate, landscape, culture, accessibility, safety, price and image; a destination must be reachable, attractive and bookable to sell.

Latitude affects climate and seasonality: tropical destinations have wet and dry seasons, temperate ones have four seasons, and high-altitude or polar areas have extreme variation.

Time zones: crossing eastward advances the clock, westward sets it back; jet lag is worse for eastward travel because the body clock must advance.

Climate and comfort: destinations near the equator are hot and humid year-round; Mediterranean climates have dry summers and mild wet winters, shaping peak season.

Travel planning sequence: establish purpose, budget and dates; choose destination; check entry requirements (passport validity, visa, health); book transport and accommodation; arrange insurance; plan itinerary and transfers.

Passports, visas and health: many countries require six months' validity beyond return date and proof of onward travel; vaccination certificates may be required for entry.

Itinerary design balances travel time, opening hours, rest and contingency; over-packed itineraries reduce satisfaction and increase risk.

Map skills: scale (ratio of map to ground distance), grid references, contours for relief, and symbols; scale is used to estimate journey distance and route feasibility.

Responsible pre-trip advice covers local laws and customs, currency and payment, safety and security, and the environmental sensitivity of the destination.

Positive economic impacts: foreign exchange earnings, employment, income generation, tax revenue, infrastructure improvement and diversification of a narrow economy.

Negative economic impacts: leakage, inflation of local prices, over-dependence on one market, seasonality of jobs, and opportunity cost of public investment.

The multiplier measures the number of times tourist spending circulates in the local economy; it is higher when goods and labour are sourced locally.

Positive social and cultural impacts: cultural pride and revival, heritage conservation, cross-cultural understanding, and improved local facilities shared by residents.

Negative socio-cultural impacts: commodification of culture, demonstration effect (residents adopting visitor lifestyles), crime, congestion, displacement of residents and loss of authenticity.

Overtourism describes destinations where visitor numbers exceed the capacity of infrastructure and residents' tolerance; symptoms include crowding, rent rises, litter and resident protest.

Environmental impacts: habitat loss and disturbance of wildlife, water and energy consumption, waste and litter, emissions from transport (especially aviation), erosion at honeypots and damage to reefs.

Carrying capacity is the maximum use a site can absorb without unacceptable deterioration; it has physical, ecological, social and economic dimensions.

Impact management tools: zoning, visitor caps and permits, entry fees, seasonal pricing, public transport to honeypots, codes of conduct and environmental impact assessment before development.

Sustainable tourism meets the needs of present visitors and hosts while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future; it applies to all forms of tourism, not only small-scale or nature tourism.

The three pillars are economic viability, social equity and environmental protection; a measure that damages one pillar is not sustainable even if it helps another.

Ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains local well-being and involves interpretation and education; it is a subset of sustainable tourism.

Responsible travel practices: choose lower-emission transport where feasible, stay longer and travel less often, use local guides and accommodation, minimise single-use plastic, respect wildlife distance rules.

Greenwashing is unsubstantiated environmental marketing; credible claims are specific, measurable and independently verified.

Carbon offsetting funds emission-reduction projects elsewhere; it does not remove the emissions produced, so it is a supplement to reduction, not a substitute.

Community-based tourism gives residents ownership and decision-making power; benefits are more likely to stay local when the community has control.

Certification and awards (for example eco-labels and Green Globe-type schemes) set criteria for accommodation and operators, helping consumers compare claims.

Sustainable destination planning uses consultation with residents, capacity limits, protected areas, public transport investment and monitoring indicators over time.

The marketing mix for services extends the 4Ps (product, price, place, promotion) with people, process and physical evidence, because services are delivered by staff in a visible setting.

Market segmentation divides customers by demographics, geography, psychographics and behaviour; targeting selects segments the organisation can serve profitably; positioning creates a distinct place in the customer's mind.

The AIDA model describes promotion stages: attention, interest, desire, action; digital channels are used differently at each stage.

Distribution channels run from principal to customer directly (own website) or indirectly via agents, online travel agents, tour operators and global distribution systems; each adds cost and reach.

Dynamic pricing adjusts prices to demand, season and remaining capacity; it is standard in airlines and hotels and requires transparent communication.

Digital marketing tools: search engine optimisation and paid search, social media and influencer content, email, content marketing, review sites and mobile apps.

The internet shifted power to the consumer: online reviews, price comparison and direct booking reduce reliance on intermediaries, while data analytics enables personalisation.

Technology in operations: online booking and check-in, mobile boarding passes, property management systems, revenue management software, self-service kiosks and contactless payment.

Promotion by destination marketing organisations uses branding, campaigns, trade shows, familiarisation trips and public relations to attract visitors and investment.

Business planning: a plan states objectives (SMART: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound), market analysis, operations, marketing, finance and risk.

Costs split into fixed (rent, insurance) and variable (food, fuel); break-even output = fixed costs divided by (price per unit minus variable cost per unit).

Gross profit = revenue minus cost of sales; net profit = gross profit minus operating expenses; cash flow differs from profit because it tracks timing of money in and out.

Revenue management uses occupancy, average room rate and revenue per available room (RevPAR = average rate x occupancy) to judge commercial performance.

Tour operations: contracting accommodation and transport in advance, setting brochure and website prices, managing currency exposure, and applying cancellation terms.

Risk management and duty of care: risk assessments for activities, health and safety procedures, crisis and contingency plans, and insurance cover for organisers and customers.

Legal framework: package travel rules on information and insolvency protection, consumer protection on misleading pricing, data protection for customer records, and licensing where required.

Employability skills for tourism: communication and listening, foreign languages, customer handling and complaint resolution, teamwork, digital literacy, numeracy, punctuality and cultural awareness.

Career paths include cabin crew, resort representative, tour guide, travel consultant, events coordinator, revenue analyst and destination marketing officer; many roles offer progression through experience and vocational qualifications.