MD POST key terms

The central point a passage is written to convey, which the other sentences support or explain. Identifying it usually requires weighing the whole text rather than one striking detail.

A fact, example, or reason inside a passage that backs up or illustrates the main idea. Distinguishing these from the main idea is a common reading task.

A conclusion drawn from evidence in the text plus reasonable reasoning, even though the text does not state it outright. Inferences must stay tied to what is written.

Surrounding words or sentences that help a reader work out the meaning of an unfamiliar word or phrase. Clues may be definitions, examples, contrasts, or restatements.

The writer's attitude toward the subject, revealed through word choice and phrasing. Tone may be neutral, critical, humorous, or urgent, and differs from the reader's reaction.

A sentence, usually early in a paragraph, that announces the paragraph's main point and controls what follows. Later sentences explain, illustrate, or qualify it.

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number and person, as in 'the officer patrols' versus 'the officers patrol.' Interrupting phrases can hide the true subject.

The requirement that a pronoun match the noun it refers to in number and gender, as in 'each recruit must bring his or her gear.' Collective nouns and indefinite pronouns often cause errors.

A descriptive phrase that does not clearly attach to the word it is meant to describe, as in 'Walking to the car, the rain began.' The sentence implies the rain was walking.

Using the same grammatical form for items in a list or comparison, as in 'filing, typing, and answering phones.' Mixed forms such as 'filing, typing, and to answer phones' break the pattern.

Joining two complete sentences with only a comma, as in 'The report was late, the sergeant was annoyed.' A period, semicolon, or conjunction fixes it.

Two or more independent clauses written together without correct punctuation or a joining word. It may occur with no punctuation at all or with only a comma.

A group of words containing a subject and a verb that can stand alone as a complete sentence. Recognizing these helps spot fragments and run-ons.

The implied or emotional meaning a word carries beyond its literal sense, as 'cheap' versus 'inexpensive.' Word choice shapes how a reader judges the subject.

The literal, dictionary meaning of a word, separate from the feelings or associations it suggests. Precise writing often depends on choosing a word whose denotation fits exactly.

A comparison of two quantities by division, often written as a fraction or with a colon, such as 3:4. It expresses relative size rather than an absolute count.

An equation stating that two ratios are equal, such as 2/3 = 8/12. Solving a proportion usually means finding the unknown value by cross-multiplying.

A number expressed as a part of one hundred, so 45 percent means 45 out of 100. Converting between decimals, fractions, and percentages is a core arithmetic skill.

The arithmetic average, found by adding all values and dividing by how many there are. It is sensitive to unusually high or low values in the data set.

The middle value in a set of numbers arranged in order. With an even count, it is the average of the two middle values, making it resistant to extreme outliers.

The value that appears most often in a data set. A set may have one mode, several modes, or none if every value occurs equally often.

The formal line of authority through which orders and information pass up and down an organization. Following it prevents confusion about who may direct whom.

The process of referring a matter to a higher level of authority when it exceeds one's own responsibility or ability to resolve. Timely escalation prevents small problems from growing.

Assigning a task and the necessary authority to another person while keeping accountability for the outcome. Effective delegation matches the task to the person's skill and workload.

The number of subordinates who report directly to one supervisor. A wide span means less individual attention; a narrow span means more layers of management.

A situation in which a person's private interests could improperly influence official decisions. Even the appearance of one should be disclosed and avoided.

The principles guiding right conduct in a role, including honesty, fairness, and accountability. Ethical standards often require more than mere legal compliance.

Consistently doing what is right and honest, especially when no one is watching. It is the personal quality behind reliable reports and trustworthy testimony.

The mental process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory information. Perception is shaped by expectation and attention, so two observers can describe the same event differently.

The focusing of awareness on particular stimuli while ignoring others. Limited attention explains why people miss details in crowded or stressful scenes.

The deliberate, systematic noticing and recording of facts about a scene or event. Good observation separates what was actually seen from what was assumed.

Retrieving stored information from memory without external cues, as when describing a suspect from memory. Recall is more error-prone than recognition.

Identifying something previously experienced when it is presented again, such as picking a face from a lineup. It is generally more reliable than unaided recall.

A technique that improves retention, such as chunking, repetition, or associating items with a familiar pattern. These methods reduce forgetting under pressure.

Arranging events in the sequence they occurred, from earliest to latest. Reports usually follow this order so a reader can reconstruct what happened.

A written account limited to verifiable facts and observable behavior, without personal opinion or speculation. It avoids words that assign motive or judgment.

A sentence construction in which the subject performs the action, as in 'The officer secured the door.' It clarifies who did what, which reports require.

A construction in which the subject receives the action, as in 'The door was secured.' It can hide the actor and is usually avoided in factual reports.

A pronoun or phrase that could point to more than one preceding word, as in 'When the officer met the witness, he was nervous.' Naming the person removes the confusion.