Civil Service General Exam key terms

A comparison of two quantities showing how many times one contains the other, often written as a:b or as a fraction; used to scale values up or down while keeping their relative size constant.

An equation stating that two ratios are equal. Solving a proportion lets you find an unknown quantity when three of the four related values are known, a common shortcut in word problems.

A fraction expressed with denominator 100, written with the percent sign. Percentages allow easy comparison of parts to wholes and appear constantly in data, budget, and growth questions.

The arithmetic difference between two percentages. A rise from 20% to 25% is five percentage points, though it is a 25% relative increase; confusing the two is a frequent trap.

The amount by which a value increases or decreases over a period, expressed either absolutely or as a percentage of the original value; the basis for growth and trend questions.

An average in which each value is multiplied by its relative importance or frequency before summing, then divided by the total weight. Used when groups of unequal size are combined.

The arithmetic average, found by adding all values and dividing by the count. It is sensitive to extreme values, unlike the median, so outliers can distort it.

The middle value of a data set arranged in order. When the count is even, it is the average of the two middle values. It resists distortion by extreme values.

A data point that lies far from the rest of the observations. Outliers can signal errors, unusual cases, or genuine extremes, and they strongly affect the mean.

A statement offered as evidence or a reason in an argument. The conclusion is supposed to follow from the premises, so identifying them is the first step in evaluating reasoning.

The claim an argument seeks to establish on the basis of its premises. Distinguishing it from supporting statements is essential to judging whether the reasoning holds.

An unstated belief the argument requires in order for its conclusion to follow. Spotting hidden assumptions lets you test whether the reasoning is sound or vulnerable.

A conclusion drawn from given information rather than stated outright. Valid inferences must follow necessarily; probable inferences are supported but not guaranteed by the evidence.

A form of deductive reasoning with two premises and a conclusion, such as 'All A are B; all B are C; therefore all A are C.' Validity depends on structure, not content.

Reasoning that moves from general rules to a specific conclusion, where true premises guarantee a true conclusion if the form is valid. Contrasts with reasoning from particular cases to general rules.

Reasoning that draws a general conclusion from specific observations. It can make conclusions probable but never certain, since unseen cases may contradict the pattern.

A property of an argument's structure whereby, if the premises were true, the conclusion would have to be true. Validity concerns form; truth concerns content.

A property of an argument that is both valid in form and has true premises. A sound argument guarantees a true conclusion, combining logical structure with factual accuracy.

A common pattern of flawed reasoning that appears persuasive but fails logically, such as attacking a person instead of the argument or assuming what one is trying to prove.

A statistical relationship in which two variables tend to move together. Correlation does not establish causation; a third factor or coincidence may explain the pattern.

A relationship in which one factor actually produces a change in another. Establishing it usually requires controlled comparison, temporal ordering, and ruling out alternative explanations.

An organised grid of rows and columns presenting values for comparison. Reading the headings, units, and totals carefully prevents misinterpreting figures in data-interpretation questions.

The skill of extracting accurate meaning from graphs such as bar, line, and pie charts, including reading axes, scales, legends, and units before drawing conclusions about trends.

The ability to choose the most appropriate response to a workplace scenario by weighing priorities, rules, stakeholders, and consequences, rather than relying on a single correct formula.

Any person, group, or organisation affected by or interested in a decision. Identifying stakeholders helps an administrator anticipate impacts and balance competing legitimate concerns.

The overall welfare of the community that public officials are expected to serve, balanced against individual rights and legal limits. It justifies action but does not override the law.

The obligation of public officials to answer for their decisions and actions to superiors, oversight bodies, and the public, and to accept consequences for failures or misconduct.

The principle that government decisions, procedures, and information should be open to public scrutiny, subject to lawful exceptions such as privacy or security, so citizens can hold officials to account.

The principle that everyone, including the government, is subject to the law, that laws are applied consistently, and that official power must have a legal basis.

The requirement that the state follow fair, established legal procedures before depriving a person of life, liberty, or property, including notice, hearing, and an impartial decision-maker.

Two core fair-hearing principles: no one should be a judge in their own cause, and both sides must be heard. These underpin fair administrative decision-making.

Latin for 'beyond the powers.' An administrative act is ultra vires when it exceeds the authority granted by statute or the constitution, making it invalid and open to challenge.

Rules, regulations, or orders made by an executive body under authority granted by a parent statute. Such rules must stay within the limits and purposes set by that statute.

The division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches with distinct functions and checks on one another, intended to prevent concentration and abuse of power.

A court's power to examine administrative or legislative acts for compliance with the constitution or governing law and to invalidate those that exceed legal authority.

A short opening section of a report that states the purpose, key findings, and recommendations so a busy reader can grasp the essentials without reading the whole document.

A concise internal document that records information, analysis, or recommendations for colleagues or superiors, typically headed by To, From, Date, and Subject lines.

A sentence construction in which the subject performs the action, as in 'The committee approved the plan.' It is usually clearer and more direct than passive phrasing in official writing.

A construction in which the subject receives the action, as in 'The plan was approved.' Useful when the actor is unknown or unimportant, but overuse obscures responsibility.

Expressing ideas in as few words as clarity allows, removing redundancy and empty phrases so that the reader grasps the message quickly and accurately.