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A perfect fifth spans seven semitones, for example from C up to G. In equal temperament it corresponds to a frequency ratio close to 3:2, which makes it one of the most consonant intervals after the octave. It frames the outer notes of both the major and minor triads.
A standard staff has five lines and four spaces, and pitch is read from the position of a note on or between them. Ledger lines extend the staff above or below for pitches outside its range. A clef then fixes which letter name belongs to each line and space.
In 6/8 the measure divides into two main beats and each beat subdivides into three, so the meter is compound duple and one beat equals a dotted quarter note. A simple meter subdivides each beat into two, while a triple meter has three beats per measure.
Pianissimo (pp) means very soft and sits at the quiet end of the dynamic range that runs from pp through p, mp, mf, f to ff. Dynamic markings control loudness only; they do not alter tempo or articulation.
Allegro is a fast tempo, usually given as roughly 120 to 168 beats per minute, quicker than andante but less extreme than presto. It contrasts with the slow adagio and the very slow largo.
The bass clef is called the F clef because its two dots surround the line that carries F below middle C. The treble clef circles G and is therefore the G clef, while C clefs point to middle C.
A major triad stacks a minor third above a major third, producing the root, major third, and perfect fifth. Lowering the third turns it into a minor triad, and lowering the fifth as well produces a diminished triad.
A dot placed after a note adds half of that note's value, so a dotted half note equals two beats plus one, or three beats. Dotted values of this kind are common in both simple and compound meters.
A relative minor lies a minor third below its major key and shares the same key signature. A minor third below E-flat is C, so C minor uses the same three flats as E-flat major.
Sharps accumulate in the order F, C, G, D, A, E, B, with each new sharp a fifth above the previous one. Flats are written in the reverse order, beginning with B-flat.
Inverting an interval moves the lower note up an octave, so the new number is nine minus the original number and the quality reverses. A major third therefore inverts to a minor sixth, just as a perfect fourth inverts to a perfect fifth.
A dominant seventh chord stacks a major triad with a minor seventh above the root, for example G–B–D–F. The minor seventh is dissonant against the root and tends to resolve downward by step, which is why the chord pulls strongly toward the tonic.
The B-flat clarinet is a transposing instrument: when the player reads and fingers a written C, the instrument sounds a B-flat, a major second lower. Instruments in F, such as the French horn, sound a perfect fifth below the written pitch.
Oboes and bassoons generate tone with a double reed made of two cane blades that vibrate against each other. Flutes have no reed at all, while clarinets and saxophones use a single reed fastened to a mouthpiece.
The Neapolitan chord is a major triad built on the lowered second scale degree, most often used in first inversion and labeled N6. It functions as a predominant, and its flattened root gives it a dark color that is especially common in minor keys.
An authentic cadence moves from the dominant to the tonic, V–I, and is the strongest closing gesture in tonal music. A plagal cadence uses IV–I, a half cadence pauses on V, and a deceptive cadence substitutes vi for the expected tonic.
In the three-beat pattern the baton moves down on beat one, to the conductor's right on beat two, and up on beat three, returning to the starting point for the next downbeat. Four-beat patterns add a leftward beat, and two-beat patterns use only the downstroke and the rebound.
Dorian is a minor-mode scale with a raised sixth degree, which is why D Dorian can be played on the white keys from D to D. Phrygian lowers the second, Lydian raises the fourth, and Mixolydian lowers the seventh of the major scale.
The octatonic scale alternates whole and half steps, contains eight pitches, and because of its symmetry produces only three distinct transpositions. The whole-tone scale is also symmetrical but yields only two distinct forms.
The twelve-bar blues falls into three four-bar phrases in an AAB pattern: the first line is repeated and a rhyming third line completes the stanza. The harmony typically follows a I–IV–V scheme, with the first four bars resting on the tonic.
In homophonic texture a single melody is accompanied by chords, or all voices move together in the same rhythm. Polyphony combines independent simultaneous melodies, while monophony is a single unaccompanied line.
A secondary dominant is the dominant chord of a scale degree other than the tonic. Since V of C major is G, the dominant of G is D, so V/V in C major is a D major triad, which resolves to G.
The alto clef places middle C on the third, or middle, line of the staff and is the standard clef for the viola. Cellos and bassoons normally read bass clef, and the double bass sounds an octave below the bass staff.
Strict chorale style forbids parallel perfect fifths and octaves because they fuse the voices and destroy their independence. Doubling the root, using passing tones, and moving the outer voices in contrary motion are all normal and accepted practices.
The whole-tone scale divides the octave into six equal whole steps, so it is symmetrical and transpositions beginning on other pitches merely duplicate one of two forms. This symmetry lets a composer move freely within the collection without changing it.
The treble staff has five lines; from bottom to top they are E, G, B, D, and F. These lines are often learned with the mnemonic Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge. The spaces of the same staff, by contrast, spell F-A-C-E.
The upper number of a time signature tells how many beats occur in each measure. The lower number identifies which note value equals one beat. For example, 3/4 means three quarter-note beats per measure.
A major scale follows the pattern whole, whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half between consecutive scale degrees. This arrangement places half steps between scale degrees 3–4 and 7–8. The pattern is the defining structure of any major key.
Flats are added in the order B-flat, E-flat, A-flat, D-flat, G-flat, C-flat, and F-flat. Each new flat is a perfect fourth above the previous one. The order of sharps is the reverse of this sequence.
A perfect fifth spans seven semitones, as from C up to G. It is one of the consonant perfect intervals in tonal music. Counting semitones provides a reliable way to identify intervals by ear or at the keyboard.
A minor triad is built with a minor third and a perfect fifth above the root. For example, A–C–E contains the minor third A–C and the perfect fifth A–E. The quality of the third determines whether the triad is major or minor.
Mezzo-forte means moderately loud and sits near the middle of the dynamic range. It is softer than forte but louder than mezzo-piano. The marking gives performers a relative level rather than an exact volume.
Allegro is a fast, lively tempo marking. It generally indicates a quicker pace than andante or moderato. Adagio and largo, by contrast, indicate slower tempos.
In 6/8 there are two main beats per measure, and each beat divides into three eighth notes. That combination defines compound duple meter. Simple meters, by contrast, divide each beat into two parts.
Transposing down a perfect fifth from C5 gives F4. The horn in F is therefore written a fifth higher than it sounds. Players read the written pitch and the instrument produces the lower sounding pitch.
Harmonic minor raises the seventh scale degree by a half step while ascending and descending. This change creates a leading tone and strengthens the dominant harmony. The raised seventh also produces an augmented second between scale degrees 6 and 7.
B major has five sharps: F-sharp, C-sharp, G-sharp, D-sharp, and A-sharp. Its relative minor is G-sharp minor, which shares the same key signature. The circle of fifths places B major after E major and before F-sharp major.
First inversion places the third of the triad in the bass. The figured-bass shorthand for this position is 6, derived from the intervals of a sixth and a third above the bass. Root position is shown as 5/3 and second inversion as 6/4.
A plagal cadence moves from IV to I, often described as the amen cadence. It provides a softer close than the authentic V–I cadence. The half cadence pauses on V, while the deceptive cadence moves from V to a chord other than I.
The tenor clef places middle C on the fourth line from the bottom. It is used by instruments such as the cello, bassoon, and trombone when their music moves into a higher range. The alto clef, by comparison, places middle C on the third line.
Inverting a perfect fifth produces a perfect fourth, because the two intervals together span an octave. Inversion changes the interval number so that the two numbers sum to nine. Perfect intervals remain perfect when inverted.
The fifth scale degree is called the dominant and is labeled V in harmonic analysis. It has a strong tendency to resolve to the tonic. The fourth degree is the subdominant, the second is the supertonic, and the seventh is the leading tone.
Traditional melodic minor raises both the sixth and seventh degrees ascending, then lowers both when descending. The descending form therefore matches natural minor. This design avoids the augmented second that harmonic minor creates.
An augmented triad stacks two major thirds, producing a root, major third, and augmented fifth. For example, C–E–G-sharp is an augmented triad. The symmetrical stacking of major thirds gives the chord its unstable, bright quality.
Root-position major triads are normally doubled on the root to reinforce the tonal center. Doubling the third can make the chord sound like a different harmony, and a seventh is not part of a triad. The fifth may be doubled, but the root is the standard choice.
A quarter note lasts one beat, the first dot adds half of that value, and the second dot adds half of the first dot. The total is 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 = 1 3/4 beats. Double dots extend a note by three-quarters of its original duration.
F-sharp is enharmonically G-flat, so the chord sounds as A-flat–C–E-flat–G-flat, an A-flat dominant seventh. That chord is V7 of D-flat, which explains the augmented sixth chord's strong pull toward the lowered second degree. The spelling as an augmented sixth reflects its voice-leading function rather than its sound alone.
A fully diminished seventh chord divides the octave into four equal minor thirds, so transposing it by three semitones reproduces the same pitch-class collection. Only three distinct diminished seventh chords exist. Each one can be spelled in several ways depending on the harmonic context.
The retransition occurs at the end of the development and typically prolongs the dominant harmony. This preparation heightens tension and sets up the recapitulation in the tonic. It often includes sequential motion and a dominant pedal.
F-sharp is pitch class 6, and the interval from C to F-sharp is six semitones. Interval classes measure the shortest distance between pitch classes, so 6 remains 6 because it is exactly half of the octave. This interval class represents the tritone.