MATSEC AM Geography cheat sheet

Plate boundaries: divergent (constructive) plates separate and new crust forms; convergent (destructive) plates collide, producing subduction or folding; transform (conservative) plates slide past each other, generating earthquakes without volcanism.

Rock cycle classes: igneous rocks crystallise from magma (intrusive = coarse-grained, extrusive = fine-grained); sedimentary rocks form by compaction and cementation of deposited sediment; metamorphic rocks recrystallise under heat and pressure.

Weathering is in situ breakdown: mechanical (freeze-thaw, salt crystallisation, exfoliation) and chemical (carbonation, hydrolysis, oxidation). Erosion involves transport of material by water, wind, ice or gravity.

Long-profile processes: upper course = vertical erosion, rapids and gorges; middle course = lateral erosion and meanders; lower course = deposition, levees and floodplains. A knick point marks a break in gradient.

Coastal landform decision rule: constructive waves (low frequency, strong swash) build beaches; destructive waves (high frequency, strong backwash) erode. Concordant coasts run parallel to structure; discordant coasts cut across it.

Glacial features: cirques, arêtes and pyramidal peaks form by erosion; moraine (lateral, medial, terminal), drumlins and erratics are depositional. Till is unsorted; outwash is sorted and stratified.

Soil profile horizons: O (organic litter), A (topsoil, humus-rich), B (subsoil, illuviation), C (weathered parent material), R (bedrock). Leaching moves soluble material downward; podzols form under coniferous cover.

Climate controls: latitude (insolation angle), altitude (lapse rate about 6.5 °C per 1000 m), distance from sea (continentality), ocean currents and prevailing winds. Relief rainfall occurs on windward slopes; rain shadow lies leeward.

Ecosystem nutrient cycling: inputs (precipitation, weathering, nitrogen fixation), transfers (litterfall, uptake), outputs (runoff, leaching, denitrification). Tropical rainforest soils are nutrient-poor because uptake is rapid and organic matter decomposes fast.

Demographic Transition Model stages: 1 high birth/high death; 2 high birth/falling death (rapid growth); 3 falling birth/falling death; 4 low birth/low death; 5 possible sub-replacement births. Population growth rate ≈ natural increase plus net migration.

Population pyramids: broad base and concave sides indicate high birth rates and youthful population; narrow base and bulging middle indicate ageing population. Dependency ratio = (under 15 + over 64) ÷ working-age (15–64) × 100.

Settlement hierarchy: settlements ranked by population and services; higher-order settlements have larger spheres of influence, greater range and threshold, and fewer in number. Central Place Theory assumes an isotropic plain and evenly spaced centres.

Urban models: Burgess concentric zones; Hoyt sector model; Harris–Ullman multiple nuclei. Land value generally peaks in the CBD because of accessibility and competition for space.

Push–pull migration: push factors include unemployment, conflict and drought; pull factors include jobs, education and services. Ravenstein's laws note that most migration is short-distance and that migrants often move in stages.

Agriculture types: subsistence (shifting cultivation, intensive rice), commercial (plantation, extensive grain, dairy). Von Thünen's model places perishable and bulky produce near the market and extensive ranching furthest away.

Industrial location factors: raw materials, energy, labour, transport, market and government policy. Footloose industries locate by preference rather than resource constraint. The Brandt line separates the wealthier North from the poorer South.

Development indicators: GDP per capita (income only), HDI (life expectancy, education and income), Gini coefficient (income inequality, 0 = perfect equality). Rostow's model stages: traditional, preconditions, take-off, drive to maturity, high mass consumption.

Land-use conflict and management: competing demands (housing, industry, conservation, recreation) are resolved through planning controls, zoning, environmental impact assessment and sustainable management such as renewable energy or ecotourism.

Plate boundaries: divergent (constructive) plates separate and new crust forms; convergent (destructive) plates collide, producing subduction or folding; transform (conservative) plates slide past each other, generating earthquakes without volcanism.

Rock cycle classes: igneous rocks crystallise from magma (intrusive = coarse-grained, extrusive = fine-grained); sedimentary rocks form by compaction and cementation of deposited sediment; metamorphic rocks recrystallise under heat and pressure.

Weathering is in situ breakdown: mechanical (freeze-thaw, salt crystallisation, exfoliation) and chemical (carbonation, hydrolysis, oxidation). Erosion involves transport of material by water, wind, ice or gravity.

Long-profile processes: upper course = vertical erosion, rapids and gorges; middle course = lateral erosion and meanders; lower course = deposition, levees and floodplains. A knick point marks a break in gradient.

Coastal landform decision rule: constructive waves (low frequency, strong swash) build beaches; destructive waves (high frequency, strong backwash) erode. Concordant coasts run parallel to structure; discordant coasts cut across it.

Glacial features: cirques, arêtes and pyramidal peaks form by erosion; moraine (lateral, medial, terminal), drumlins and erratics are depositional. Till is unsorted; outwash is sorted and stratified.

Soil profile horizons: O (organic litter), A (topsoil, humus-rich), B (subsoil, illuviation), C (weathered parent material), R (bedrock). Leaching moves soluble material downward; podzols form under coniferous cover.

Climate controls: latitude (insolation angle), altitude (lapse rate about 6.5 °C per 1000 m), distance from sea (continentality), ocean currents and prevailing winds. Relief rainfall occurs on windward slopes; rain shadow lies leeward.

Ecosystem nutrient cycling: inputs (precipitation, weathering, nitrogen fixation), transfers (litterfall, uptake), outputs (runoff, leaching, denitrification). Tropical rainforest soils are nutrient-poor because uptake is rapid and organic matter decomposes fast.

Demographic Transition Model stages: 1 high birth/high death; 2 high birth/falling death (rapid growth); 3 falling birth/falling death; 4 low birth/low death; 5 possible sub-replacement births. Population growth rate ≈ natural increase plus net migration.

Population pyramids: broad base and concave sides indicate high birth rates and youthful population; narrow base and bulging middle indicate ageing population. Dependency ratio = (under 15 + over 64) ÷ working-age (15–64) × 100.

Settlement hierarchy: settlements ranked by population and services; higher-order settlements have larger spheres of influence, greater range and threshold, and fewer in number. Central Place Theory assumes an isotropic plain and evenly spaced centres.

Urban models: Burgess concentric zones; Hoyt sector model; Harris–Ullman multiple nuclei. Land value generally peaks in the CBD because of accessibility and competition for space.

Push–pull migration: push factors include unemployment, conflict and drought; pull factors include jobs, education and services. Ravenstein's laws note that most migration is short-distance and that migrants often move in stages.

Agriculture types: subsistence (shifting cultivation, intensive rice), commercial (plantation, extensive grain, dairy). Von Thünen's model places perishable and bulky produce near the market and extensive ranching furthest away.

Industrial location factors: raw materials, energy, labour, transport, market and government policy. Footloose industries locate by preference rather than resource constraint. The Brandt line separates the wealthier North from the poorer South.

Development indicators: GDP per capita (income only), HDI (life expectancy, education and income), Gini coefficient (income inequality, 0 = perfect equality). Rostow's model stages: traditional, preconditions, take-off, drive to maturity, high mass consumption.

Land-use conflict and management: competing demands (housing, industry, conservation, recreation) are resolved through planning controls, zoning, environmental impact assessment and sustainable management such as renewable energy or ecotourism.