MATSEC IM Psychology flashcards
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32 cards. Read the term and the definition here. The deck at the top of this page is optional.
- Independent variable
- The factor deliberately manipulated or changed by the researcher in an experiment, so that its effect on the measured outcome can be observed and compared across conditions.
- Dependent variable
- The variable that is measured by the researcher in an experiment; it is the outcome expected to change as a result of manipulating the independent variable.
- Operationalisation
- Defining a variable in concrete, measurable terms so it can be observed and recorded, for example defining aggression as the number of hits within ten minutes.
- Hypothesis
- A precise, testable statement predicting the relationship between two variables; a null hypothesis states there will be no significant difference or relationship.
- Random sampling
- A sampling technique in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected, reducing selection bias and improving representativeness.
- Opportunity sampling
- Selecting participants who are available and willing at the time of the study; it is quick and practical but often unrepresentative of the wider population.
- Informed consent
- An ethical requirement that participants agree to take part after being told the purpose and procedures of the study, and are aware of their right to withdraw.
- Debriefing
- A post-study session in which the researcher explains the true aims and procedures to participants, checks their wellbeing, and answers any questions raised.
- Reliability
- The consistency of a measurement or procedure, meaning it produces similar results when repeated under the same conditions or when scored by different observers.
- Validity
- The extent to which a study or measurement accurately assesses what it intends to measure, including internal validity of design and ecological validity of setting.
- Correlation coefficient
- A numerical value between -1 and +1 showing the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables; zero indicates no linear relationship.
- Classical conditioning
- Learning in which a neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response, as demonstrated in Pavlov's dog experiments.
- Operant conditioning
- Learning through consequences: behaviours followed by reinforcement are strengthened, while behaviours followed by punishment are weakened, as described by Skinner.
- Positive reinforcement
- Adding a pleasant or rewarding stimulus after a behaviour, which increases the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated in similar future situations.
- Negative reinforcement
- Removing or avoiding an unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour, which strengthens that behaviour because it brings relief from the aversive condition.
- Social learning theory
- Bandura's theory that people learn by observing and imitating models, with identification and vicarious reinforcement influencing whether imitation occurs.
- Vicarious reinforcement
- Learning to perform a behaviour after observing another person being rewarded for it, without the observer receiving the reward directly.
- Short-term memory
- The limited-capacity store holding information for a short time without rehearsal; capacity is roughly seven items and duration around twenty seconds.
- Long-term memory
- The relatively permanent store with apparently unlimited capacity, holding information encoded mainly by meaning for periods ranging from minutes to a lifetime.
- Encoding
- The process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory, typically through visual, acoustic, or semantic coding.
- Retrieval
- The process of accessing stored information from memory; failure of retrieval can cause forgetting even when the information remains stored.
- Schema
- A mental framework of knowledge and expectations built from experience, used to organise information and interpret new situations, sometimes distorting recall.
- Conformity
- Changing behaviour or beliefs to match those of a majority group, often arising from normative social influence or informational social influence.
- Obedience
- Compliance with the demands of an authority figure; Milgram's studies showed that situational factors such as proximity and legitimacy affect obedience rates.
- Bystander effect
- The finding that individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present, explained by diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance.
- Attribution
- The process of explaining the causes of behaviour; dispositional attributions attribute behaviour to the person, situational attributions to external circumstances.
- Fundamental attribution error
- The tendency to overestimate dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining other people's behaviour, especially in negative outcomes.
- Prejudice
- A preconceived negative attitude towards a group or its members, involving affective, cognitive, and behavioural components that can lead to discrimination.
- Cognitive dissonance
- The discomfort felt when holding two contradictory cognitions; people reduce it by changing a belief, changing behaviour, or adding justifying cognitions.
- Case study
- An in-depth investigation of a single individual or small group using multiple methods; rich in detail but difficult to generalise from.
- Naturalistic observation
- Watching and recording behaviour in a natural setting without interference; it has high ecological validity but limited control over extraneous variables.
- Demand characteristics
- Cues in an experiment that reveal the aim to participants and may cause them to change their behaviour, threatening the validity of the findings.