MATSEC IM Psychology key terms

A learning process in which the likelihood of a behaviour changes because of the consequences that follow it, such as rewards or punishments, rather than through pairing with a prior stimulus.

Learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to trigger a response after being repeatedly paired with a stimulus that already produces that response, as in Pavlov's salivating dogs.

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically produces a response without any prior learning, such as food causing salivation in a hungry animal.

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, acquires the power to elicit a learned response on its own.

Any consequence that increases the frequency or strength of the behaviour it follows. It may be positive, adding something pleasant, or negative, removing something unpleasant.

A consequence that weakens or reduces the frequency of the behaviour it follows, either by adding an unpleasant event or by removing something desirable.

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned response when the reinforcement or conditioned pairing that maintained it is withdrawn.

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period, showing that extinction suppresses learning rather than erasing it.

Responding in the same way to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus, so that learning spreads beyond the exact situation in which it was acquired.

Rules determining how often and when a response is reinforced, such as fixed-ratio or variable-interval patterns, which strongly affect how quickly and persistently behaviour is learned.

A limited-capacity system that temporarily holds and manipulates information during tasks such as reasoning, comprehension and problem solving.

The store that holds a small amount of information for roughly twenty to thirty seconds without rehearsal, typically around seven items.

The relatively permanent store of knowledge and skills, with effectively unlimited capacity, from which information can be retrieved after long delays.

The process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory, influenced by attention, depth of processing and prior knowledge.

The process of locating and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness, which can be helped by cues and context matching.

A memory strategy that groups separate items into larger meaningful units, allowing more information to be held within a limited capacity store.

A mental framework built from past experience that organises knowledge and guides how new information is interpreted, stored and recalled.

In Piaget's theory, fitting new information into an existing mental framework without changing that framework.

In Piaget's theory, altering an existing mental framework, or creating a new one, because new information cannot be fitted into what is already known.

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, typically developing towards the end of infancy.

The understanding that quantity, mass or volume stays the same despite changes in appearance or arrangement, a skill usually acquired in middle childhood.

Difficulty in taking another person's viewpoint or recognising that others may hold beliefs and perceptions different from one's own.

A strong, enduring emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver, shown in seeking proximity, distress at separation and pleasure at reunion.

A mental representation of self and others built from early caregiving experiences, which shapes expectations and behaviour in later relationships.

Distress shown by an infant or young child when separated from a familiar caregiver, peaking in the second half of the first year.

Wariness or distress shown by infants towards unfamiliar people, typically emerging around six to nine months of age.

Changing one's behaviour or expressed beliefs to match those of a group, often because of real or imagined pressure from others.

Following a direct order or instruction from a person in authority, even when the requested action conflicts with personal judgement.

Agreeing to a request without necessarily changing private beliefs, often through techniques such as reciprocity or the foot-in-the-door approach.

Conformity driven by the desire to be liked and accepted by a group, rather than by a belief that the group is correct.

Conformity driven by the belief that others possess accurate information, so their judgements are used as a guide to reality.

The finding that people are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present, partly because responsibility is shared among witnesses.

A reduction in personal responsibility felt by each member of a group, so individuals are less likely to act than if they were alone.

Voluntary actions intended to benefit other people, such as helping, sharing, comforting or cooperating, without obvious personal reward.

The relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviours that distinguishes one person from another across situations and over time.

A relatively enduring characteristic or disposition that predisposes a person to behave in consistent ways across a range of situations.

An approach to personality that describes individuals in terms of stable dimensions of difference, such as extraversion or neuroticism, rather than unconscious conflicts.

In psychodynamic theory, the part of mental life containing thoughts, wishes and memories outside awareness that nonetheless influence behaviour and feelings.

An unconscious mental strategy used to protect the self from anxiety, for example by denying, projecting or rationalising uncomfortable thoughts and impulses.

A person's general belief about whether outcomes depend on their own actions, an internal locus, or on outside forces such as luck or other people.