MSCE Geography cheat sheet

Earth's interior layers: crust (0-70 km), mantle (to ~2900 km), outer core (liquid iron-nickel), inner core (solid); P-waves refract at the Gutenberg discontinuity, S-waves cannot pass the outer core.

Plate boundaries: divergent (constructive, mid-ocean ridges), convergent (destructive, subduction trenches and fold mountains), transform (conservative, fault lines such as San Andreas).

Rock cycle: igneous (intrusive coarse-grained, extrusive fine-grained), sedimentary (strata, fossils, compaction), metamorphic (heat/pressure, foliation).

Weathering types: mechanical (freeze-thaw, exfoliation, salt crystal growth), chemical (carbonation on limestone, oxidation, hydrolysis on granite), biological (root wedging).

Mass movement classes by speed and water content: soil creep, solifluction, landslide, mudflow, rockfall; triggered by steep gradient, saturation, undercutting.

Karst features on limestone: swallow holes, stalactites, stalagmites, limestone pavement, dry valleys, formed by carbonation-solution.

Glacial erosion produces U-shaped valleys, cirques, arêtes, hanging valleys; deposition produces moraine, drumlin, erratics, till.

Coastal processes: hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, solution; longshore drift moves material in the direction of prevailing swash.

Atmospheric composition: ~78% nitrogen, ~21% oxygen, ~0.93% argon, ~0.04% carbon dioxide; water vapour varies 0-4%.

Layers by temperature trend: troposphere (decreasing), stratosphere (increasing, ozone), mesosphere (decreasing), thermosphere (increasing).

Pressure gradient force drives wind from high to low pressure; Coriolis deflection is right in the Northern Hemisphere, left in the Southern.

Relative humidity = (actual vapour content / saturation capacity at that temperature) × 100; capacity rises with temperature.

Air rises when forced (convergence, orographic lift, frontal lift, convection); cooling by adiabatic expansion produces cloud and rain.

Cloud types: cumulus (convection), stratus (layered), cirrus (high ice), cumulonimbus (thunderstorm); rain forms by Bergeron (ice crystal) or coalescence processes.

Climate controls: latitude, altitude, distance from sea continentality, ocean currents, prevailing winds, relief.

Climate graphs plot mean monthly temperature (line) and precipitation (bar); the Southern Hemisphere thermal maximum falls in January/February.

Scale statement: 1:50 000 means 1 cm on map = 500 m on ground; 1:25 000 means 1 cm = 250 m.

Contour interval is constant on a map; closely spaced contours = steep slope; V-shaped contours pointing uphill indicate a valley.

Grid references: four-figure gives a 1 km square (eastings first, then northings); six-figure gives 100 m precision.

Bearings are measured clockwise from grid north; a magnetic declination adjustment converts grid bearing to magnetic bearing.

Cross-sections: transfer contour intersections along a transect line, then plot height against distance.

Fieldwork sequence: hypothesis, sampling strategy (random, systematic, stratified), data collection, presentation (graph, map, GIS), analysis, evaluation of reliability.

Choropleth maps show density by shading; isolines connect equal values; proportional symbols show absolute totals.

Map evidence of land use: buildings, orchards, quarries, woodland symbols, footpaths, and communications distinguish rural from urban areas.

Natural increase rate = birth rate − death rate (per 1 000); net migration adds to give total population change.

Demographic Transition Model stages: high stationary, early expanding, late expanding, low stationary, declining; stage links to birth/death rates.

Population pyramid shape reads: broad base = high birth rate; narrow top = low life expectancy; bulge = past baby boom or migration.

Push factors (poverty, war, unemployment) drive emigration; pull factors (jobs, safety, services) attract immigration.

Ravenstein's laws: most migrants move short distances; rural-to-urban dominates; migration streams produce counter-streams.

Settlement site factors: water supply, flat land, defence, bridging point, fertile soil, aspect; situation relates to routes and resources.

Urban land-use models: Burgess concentric zones, Hoyt sector model, Harris-Ullman multiple nuclei; CBD has high land value and accessibility.

Settlement hierarchy: few large high-order centres, many small low-order centres; sphere of influence grows with settlement size.

Farming systems classified by inputs, outputs, intensity: subsistence vs commercial, extensive vs intensive, nomadic, plantation, mixed.

Von Thünen model: land use rings around a market reflect transport cost and land rent; perishable and bulky goods nearest.

Soil profile horizons: O (organic), A (topsoil, humus), B (subsoil, illuviation), C (weathered parent material), R (bedrock).

Soil properties: texture (sand/silt/clay), structure, pH, drainage, organic matter; loam is the most fertile balance.

Green Revolution raised yields via high-yield varieties, irrigation, fertiliser and pesticides; criticisms include inequality and salinisation.

Rural land-use conflicts: urban sprawl, quarrying, conservation, recreation, forestry, and infrastructure compete for farmland.

Irrigation methods: flood, furrow, sprinkler, drip; drip is most water-efficient but capital-intensive.

Sustainable rural development indicators: food security, income diversification, soil conservation, access to markets and services.

Industrial location factors: raw materials, power, labour, market, transport, capital, government policy; weight-losing industries locate near raw materials.

Sector classification: primary (extraction), secondary (manufacturing), tertiary (services), quaternary (knowledge/research).

Industrialisation models: Rostow's stages of growth; growth poles; export processing zones attract footloose industries.

Energy sources: fossil fuels (non-renewable, high carbon), nuclear (low carbon, waste risk), hydro, wind, solar, geothermal, biomass (renewable).

Energy mix depends on resource endowment, cost, technology, policy; energy security is measured by import dependence and diversity.

Transport modes trade off cost, speed, capacity and flexibility; containerisation reduced handling costs and enabled global supply chains.

Trade balance = value of exports − value of imports; a surplus is positive, a deficit negative.

Trade blocs (free trade areas, customs unions, common markets) reduce tariffs but may divert trade from cheaper external producers.

Hydrological cycle stores: oceans, glaciers, groundwater, soil moisture, atmosphere; fluxes: evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, runoff.

Drainage basin terms: watershed (divide), confluence, tributary, source, mouth; drainage patterns: dendritic, trellis, radial, deranged.

Storm hydrograph: lag time is the delay between peak rainfall and peak discharge; short lag follows steep, impermeable, urbanised basins.

River processes: erosion (hydraulic, abrasion, attrition, solution), transport (traction, saltation, suspension, solution), deposition.

Long profile: concave, steep in upper course, gentle in lower; cross-section widens and deepens downstream.

Meanders form by helical flow eroding the outer bank (river cliff) and depositing on the inner bank (point bar); ox-bow lakes form by cut-off.

Flood causes: intense or prolonged rainfall, snowmelt, saturated ground, deforestation, urbanisation, impermeable geology, channel constriction.

Water scarcity is physical (supply shortage) or economic (lack of infrastructure); groundwater over-abstraction causes subsidence and salinisation.

Hazard = natural event × vulnerability; risk is reduced by mitigation, preparedness, prediction and adaptation, not only by controlling the event.

Hazards classified: tectonic (earthquake, volcano, tsunami), climatic (drought, flood, tropical cyclone), geomorphic (landslide, avalanche).

Earthquake magnitude (Richter/Moment) measures energy; intensity (Mercalli) measures observed damage; magnitude scale is logarithmic.

Volcano hazards: pyroclastic flows, ash fall, lahars, lava, gas; monitoring via seismographs, tiltmeters, gas sensors, satellite.

Conservation strategies: protected areas, national parks, corridors, sustainable forestry, recycling, pollution controls, environmental impact assessment.

Sustainable development balances economic, social and environmental pillars; carrying capacity limits use of a resource.

Pollution types: point source vs non-point source; eutrophication follows nutrient runoff, causing algal bloom and oxygen depletion.

Climate change responses: mitigation (renewables, efficiency, carbon pricing) and adaptation (flood defences, drought-resistant crops, coastal zoning).