MSCE Geography key terms

The point inside the Earth where rock first breaks and releases seismic energy along a fault. Its position below the surface determines how strongly shaking is felt above.

The point on the ground surface directly above an earthquake's focus. Damage is often greatest here, though local geology and building quality also affect the outcome.

The zone where two tectonic plates meet, either diverging, converging or sliding past each other. Most earthquakes and volcanoes occur along these zones.

A convergent boundary where one denser plate sinks beneath another into the mantle. It produces deep ocean trenches, strong earthquakes and chains of explosive volcanoes.

The continuous set of processes that change igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock into one another through melting, cooling, weathering, erosion, deposition and heat or pressure.

Rock formed when layers of sediment are compacted and cemented over long periods, often under water. Examples include sandstone, limestone and shale, which may contain fossils.

The breakdown of rock in place by physical, chemical or biological processes, without the material being carried away. It prepares rock for erosion and soil formation.

The removal and transport of weathered material by agents such as running water, wind, ice or gravity. It shapes valleys, coastlines and depositional landforms downstream.

The laying down of eroded material when the transporting agent loses energy, for example where a river slows or a glacier melts. It builds features such as deltas and moraines.

The movement of sediment along a coast by waves approaching at an angle, with swash carrying material up the beach and backwash returning it straight down.

A narrow ridge of sand or shingle extending from the land into open water, built where longshore drift continues past a change in coastline direction and deposition occurs.

The weight of the air column above a point, measured in millibars or hectopascals. Differences in pressure drive winds from high to low pressure areas.

A line on a weather map joining places of equal atmospheric pressure. Closely spaced isobars indicate steep pressure gradients and therefore stronger winds.

The direction from which wind most frequently blows at a place over a period, shaped by global pressure belts and the Coriolis effect.

Rain produced when moist air is forced to rise over hills or mountains, cools, condenses and falls as precipitation, leaving a drier rain shadow beyond.

The drier area on the leeward side of a mountain range, where descending air has already lost most of its moisture as relief rainfall on the windward slopes.

The natural warming of the lower atmosphere as gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapour absorb and re-emit outgoing long-wave radiation from the Earth's surface.

Long-term shifts in temperature, precipitation and other climate patterns, currently driven mainly by human emissions of greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels and land-use change.

A line on a map joining points of equal height above sea level. The spacing and shape of contours reveal slope steepness and landform features.

The ratio between distance on a map and the real distance on the ground, shown as a representative fraction, a written statement or a linear bar.

A profile drawn along a line on a map, plotting height against distance to show the shape of the land surface in side view.

Site is the actual land a settlement occupies, including slope, drainage and resources; situation is its position relative to surrounding features such as rivers, routes and other towns.

The rising proportion of a population living in towns and cities, driven by rural-to-urban migration and natural increase in urban areas.

Conditions that drive people away from a place, such as unemployment or conflict, and attractions that draw them elsewhere, such as jobs, services or safety.

A person forced to leave their country because of war, persecution or disaster, and who crosses an international border in search of safety.

Farming that produces mainly enough food to feed the farmer's household, with little surplus for sale. It is often labour-intensive and vulnerable to drought or pests.

Farming that uses high inputs of labour, capital, fertiliser or machinery to obtain high yields from a small area of land.

The artificial supply of water to farmland, often through canals, sprinklers or drip lines, to supplement rainfall and support crops in dry periods.

The set of factors that determine where a factory is sited, including raw material and market access, transport links, labour supply, energy and government policy.

A type of industry that is not tied to raw material sources or heavy transport and can locate almost anywhere, often choosing sites for labour, tax or quality-of-life reasons.

Energy from sources that are naturally replenished, such as sunlight, wind, moving water, geothermal heat and biomass, producing little greenhouse gas during operation.

The upper level of saturated rock and soil below the ground surface, which rises after heavy rain and falls during dry spells or heavy abstraction.

A permeable rock layer that stores and transmits groundwater in usable quantities, often tapped by wells and boreholes for drinking and irrigation.

The whole area of land drained by a river and its tributaries, bounded by a watershed. Its inputs, stores and flows can be studied as a system.

The boundary of high ground separating one drainage basin from another, so that rainfall on either side flows into different river systems.

The flat land beside a river that is covered when the channel overflows. It stores floodwater and receives fertile alluvium deposited by earlier floods.

Development that meets present needs without preventing future generations from meeting theirs, balancing economic growth with environmental protection and social equity.

The careful management and protection of natural resources, habitats and heritage so that they are not depleted or damaged for future use.

The probability that a natural hazard will cause harm, combining the likelihood of the event with the exposure and vulnerability of people and property.