NBPTS English as a New Language (ENL) cheat sheet

Krashen's input hypothesis: acquisition occurs when learners receive comprehensible input slightly beyond current level (i+1); output practice alone does not drive acquisition.

Cummins' BICS (conversational fluency) typically develops in 1-3 years; CALP (academic language proficiency) typically takes 5-7 years and depends on prior schooling and literacy in L1.

Affective filter: anxiety, low motivation, and low self-confidence raise the filter and reduce intake; comprehensible input must be paired with low-stress conditions.

Interlanguage is a rule-governed learner system; errors often reflect developmental stages (e.g., overgeneralization of past tense) rather than L1 interference.

Contrastive analysis predicts difficulty from L1-L2 differences, but error analysis shows many errors are intralanguage (developmental), not transfer-based.

Threshold hypothesis: bilingual learners must reach a minimum competence in both languages before cognitive benefits of bilingualism appear; subtractive contexts risk semilingualism.

L1 literacy transfers to L2: phonological awareness, decoding, and academic text structure transfer across languages, especially when writing systems are similar.

The natural order hypothesis holds that grammatical morphemes are acquired in a predictable sequence regardless of instructional order; instruction does not reorder it.

Fossilization occurs when interlanguage features stabilize and persist despite continued exposure, often when communicative pressure is low or feedback is absent.

Culture is learned, shared, dynamic, and largely tacit; visible artifacts (food, dress) are surface culture, while values, beliefs, and communication norms are deep culture.

Individualism vs. collectivism (Hofstede) shapes classroom expectations about group work, public display of individual achievement, and help-seeking behavior.

High-context communication relies on shared situation and nonverbal cues; low-context communication relies on explicit verbal messages. Mismatch can be misread as rudeness or vagueness.

Power distance affects whether students question teachers, negotiate grades, or initiate discussion; high power distance students may avoid direct disagreement.

Cultural mismatch in discourse patterns (e.g., narrative structure, turn-taking, eye contact) can be misdiagnosed as a language or cognitive deficit.

Assimilation, acculturation, and additive bilingualism are distinct: assimilation replaces L1/culture; additive approaches maintain L1 while adding L2 and school culture.

Stereotype threat: awareness of a negative group stereotype can depress performance; reducing identity cues and emphasizing belonging mitigates it.

Culture shock stages (honeymoon, frustration, adjustment, adaptation) predict fluctuating engagement and affect; behavior changes may reflect stage, not ability.

Sheltered instruction (SIOP-style) components: content objectives, language objectives, building background, comprehensible input, strategies, interaction, practice/application, lesson delivery, review/assessment.

Language objectives name the language function (compare, explain, justify), the language form (e.g., comparative adjectives), and the support (sentence frames, word bank).

WIDA-style performance levels (Entering, Emerging, Developing, Expanding, Bridging) describe what students can do with language; instruction should target one level above current.

Scaffolding types: modeling, visuals, graphic organizers, sentence frames, word banks, cooperative grouping, native language support; remove scaffolds as proficiency grows.

BICS/CALP distinction means academic tasks need explicit language support (text structure, academic vocabulary) even when students sound fluent socially.

Total Physical Response pairs language with physical action; effective for early-stage learners and vocabulary, not for complex academic discourse.

Cooperative structures (think-pair-share, jigsaw) increase student talk; assign roles and provide accountable talk stems to ensure language output.

Backward design: identify desired results, determine acceptable evidence, then plan learning experiences; language objectives should align with assessment evidence.

Translanguaging strategies (bilingual word walls, L1 prewriting) use the full linguistic repertoire as a resource rather than treating L1 as interference.

Formative assessment informs instruction in real time; summative assessment measures achievement at the end. Both must match the language demands of the task.

Accommodations (extra time, bilingual glossary, read-aloud of directions) change access, not content expectations; modifications change expectations and can affect accountability.

Standardized ELP assessments measure academic English in four domains (listening, speaking, reading, writing); scores guide placement and exit decisions, not cognitive ability.

Performance-based assessment (portfolios, presentations, projects) captures academic language use that multiple-choice tests miss; use rubrics with language criteria.

Rubrics should describe language proficiency levels (e.g., vocabulary range, sentence complexity, organization) separately from content accuracy to avoid double penalizing.

Assessment bias: cultural content, idioms, and context-dependent items can depress scores for ELs; item review for cultural neutrality is essential.

Dynamic assessment measures learning potential by providing prompts during testing and measuring responsiveness; contrasts with static standardized testing.

Exit criteria for EL services typically combine ELP assessment scores, content performance, and teacher judgment; a single score should not determine exit.

Lau v. Nichols (1974): identical facilities and curriculum do not equal equal treatment; districts must provide meaningful access for students with limited English proficiency.

Castaneda v. Pickard (1981): three-part test for program adequacy-research-based, implemented with resources, and evaluated for effectiveness.

Plyler v. Doe (1982): undocumented students have the right to a free public K-12 education; districts cannot require immigration documents for enrollment.

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination based on national origin, which includes language; denial of language services can constitute discrimination.

Advocacy roles: ensuring equitable access to advanced courses, gifted identification, and special education evaluation rather than defaulting ELs to low-track placements.

Over- and under-identification of ELs for special education are both risks; distinguish language difference from disability using native language data and response-to-intervention evidence.

Professional collaboration: co-teaching, shared planning, and data teams improve EL outcomes; isolation of EL specialists reduces program coherence.

Ethical obligations include confidentiality of student information, avoiding bias in referral, and communicating with families in a language they understand.

Epstein's framework: parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision-making, and collaborating with community-six types of involvement.

Family engagement predicts achievement more strongly than family income; two-way communication and home-language materials increase participation.

Barriers to involvement include work schedules, transportation, language, unfamiliarity with school norms, and prior negative school experiences; scheduling and interpretation address these.

Funds of knowledge: households hold knowledge (work, caregiving, community networks) that can be used as instructional resources.

Interpreters should be trained and used for all high-stakes communication; using students as interpreters for family matters is inappropriate and can distort information.

Parent-teacher conferences need interpreters, translated documents, and clear explanations of ELP levels, program options, and exit criteria.

Community partnerships (libraries, cultural organizations, employers) extend authentic language use and create pathways to internships and adult ESL classes.

Home visits and bilingual family liaisons build trust; communication should be proactive and asset-based, not only triggered by discipline or academic problems.