NBPTS Literacy: Reading-Language Arts key terms

The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words, such as blending or segmenting /k/ /a/ /t/. It is an auditory skill and does not involve printed letters.

A broad awareness of the sound structure of language, including syllables, rhymes, and onset-rime units, and individual phonemes. It develops along a continuum and underlies later decoding and spelling growth.

Instruction in the relationships between letters (graphemes) and the sounds they represent (phonemes), used to decode and encode words. It differs from phonemic awareness because it involves printed text.

The act of breaking a spoken word into its individual sounds, saying /s/ /u/ /n/ for sun. It is a phonemic awareness task that supports spelling and early decoding.

Combining individual sounds or word parts into a whole word, as when a reader hears /m/ /a/ /p/ and says map. Blending is essential for using phonics knowledge during reading.

The smallest written unit that represents a sound in a writing system, which may be one letter (b) or several letters (sh, igh). Grapheme-phoneme mapping is the core of phonics instruction.

The smallest distinctive unit of sound in a spoken language, such as the three sounds in cat. Changing one phoneme changes meaning, as in cat versus bat.

Using knowledge of letter-sound relationships and word structure to translate printed words into spoken words. Accurate, automatic decoding frees cognitive resources for comprehension.

The process of translating spoken language into written symbols, that is, spelling. It draws on phonemic awareness, phonics knowledge, and memory for orthographic patterns.

The conventional writing system of a language, including its spelling patterns, letter sequences, and rules. English orthography is morphophonemic, reflecting both sound and meaning.

The study of the smallest meaningful units of language (morphemes) and how they combine to form words. Morphological knowledge helps readers infer the meaning of unfamiliar multisyllabic words.

The smallest unit of meaning in a word, such as the base help plus the suffix -ful in helpful. Morphemes may be free, standing alone, or bound, attached to other units.

A bound morpheme attached to a base or root word to change its meaning or grammatical function, including prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. Recognizing affixes supports vocabulary and spelling.

An affix added to the beginning of a base word or root that alters meaning, as re- in reread or un- in unhappy. Teaching common prefixes expands students' word-learning strategies.

An affix attached to the end of a base word or root that changes meaning or part of speech, as -ness in kindness. Suffixes also affect spelling and syllable patterns.

The two parts of a syllable: the onset is the initial consonant or cluster, and the rime is the vowel plus following consonants. In cat, /k/ is the onset and -at is the rime.

A unit of pronunciation containing one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants, such as the three syllables in butterfly. Syllable awareness supports decoding and spelling of longer words.

The process of dividing words into syllables according to language patterns, used to decode unfamiliar multisyllabic words. Common patterns include vowel-consonant-consonant-vowel and consonant-le endings.

Two letters that together represent a single sound, such as sh, ch, th, or the vowel pair ea in bread. Digraphs differ from blends, in which each letter sound is heard.

Two or more consonants appearing together in a syllable where each sound is pronounced, as in stop, bl-, or -nd. Blends contrast with digraphs, which represent one sound.

A word appearing so often in written English that automatic recognition is essential, such as the, of, and was. Some are irregularly spelled and are often taught as sight words.

A word a reader recognizes instantly and effortlessly, without needing to decode it. Sight vocabulary grows through repeated exposure and orthographic mapping, not memorization alone.

The mental process of forming connections between a word's letters, sounds, and meaning so it is stored for instant retrieval. It explains how readers build a sight vocabulary efficiently.

Reading with accuracy, appropriate rate, and meaningful expression (prosody). Fluent reading reflects automatic word recognition and enables attention to shift toward comprehension.

The ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly with little conscious attention. It develops through practice and is a key component of reading fluency.

The rhythmic and intonational features of oral reading, including phrasing, stress, and pitch. Appropriate prosody signals that a reader is constructing meaning from text.

The process of constructing meaning from text by integrating word-level skills with background knowledge, vocabulary, and strategic reasoning. It is the ultimate goal of reading instruction.

An organized mental framework of prior knowledge that readers activate and revise as they encounter new information. Relevant schemas support inference and reduce comprehension difficulty.

A conclusion drawn by combining textual evidence with prior knowledge when information is not stated explicitly. Skilled readers generate inferences to fill gaps and build coherent meaning.

A systematic examination of oral reading errors to understand the cueing systems a reader uses. It reveals whether a student relies on meaning, syntax, or visual information.

An observational assessment in which a teacher records a student's oral reading behaviors, including accuracy, errors, and self-corrections. It informs instructional grouping and text selection.

A graded series of passages used to estimate a student's independent, instructional, and frustration reading levels. Results guide text placement and targeted skill instruction.

Ongoing, low-stakes evaluation used during instruction to identify student needs and adjust teaching. Examples include conferring notes, exit tickets, and running records.

Evaluation conducted at the end of a unit or period to measure achievement against standards, such as a unit test or portfolio review. It typically informs reporting rather than daily instruction.

Planning instruction that adapts content, process, or product to varied readiness, interests, and learning profiles. In literacy, it may involve flexible grouping, leveled texts, or choice in response formats.

Temporary support that helps a learner accomplish a task beyond current independent ability, gradually removed as competence grows. Examples include modeling, prompts, and guided practice.

The range between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with skilled assistance. Instruction targeted within this zone maximizes growth through supported challenge.

An instructional model that shifts from teacher modeling to guided practice to independent application. It supports students in internalizing strategies through explicit teaching and transfer.

Direct, systematic teaching that states objectives, models skills, provides guided practice, and gives corrective feedback. It is especially effective for foundational reading skills and struggling readers.