Norway CPL Theory cheat sheet

EASA Part-FCL CPL(A) requires 200 total flight hours, of which at least 100 as PIC, 20 cross-country as PIC, and 5 night hours including 3 dual.

Class 1 medical certificate validity for CPL privileges: 12 months under age 40, 6 months at or above 40 (single-pilot commercial operations).

Aerodrome traffic circuit: join downwind at circuit altitude, left-hand turns unless published otherwise in the AIP.

SERA cruising levels: magnetic track 000–179 use odd thousands +500 ft; 180–359 use even thousands +500 ft (VFR above 3000 ft AMSL or 1000 ft AGL).

Squawk 7700 = general emergency; 7600 = radio failure; 7500 = unlawful interference.

ATC clearance readback is mandatory for: route clearances, hold-short and runway instructions, altimeter settings, SSR codes, and frequency changes.

CPL privileges: act as PIC of aircraft engaged in non-commercial operations and as co-pilot in commercial air transport; do not confer instructor or ATPL privileges.

Runway holding position markings: two solid + two dashed yellow lines; aircraft must stop at the solid side unless explicitly cleared.

Piston engine four-stroke cycle order: intake, compression, power, exhaust; two crankshaft revolutions per complete cycle.

Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for gasoline ≈ 15:1 by mass; best power ≈ 12:1; best economy ≈ 16–18:1.

Detonation: uncontrolled explosive combustion after normal ignition; causes include over-lean at high power, high CHT, low octane, high manifold pressure.

Pre-ignition: ignition before the spark; usually caused by a hot spot (carbon, plug electrode) and can lead to detonation.

Constant-speed propeller: governor senses RPM and adjusts blade angle via oil pressure; loss of oil pressure drives blades to fine pitch (high RPM) or feather depending on design.

Series circuit: same current through all elements, voltages sum. Parallel circuit: same voltage across elements, currents sum.

Lead-acid battery: 12 cells × 2 V nominal = 24 V; voltage falls under load and rises during charging; check electrolyte level.

Hydraulic system relief valve limits maximum pressure; a thermal relief valve protects against fluid expansion when isolated.

Pitot-static: ASI uses total and static; altimeter uses static only; VSI uses static only; Machmeter uses pitot and static.

Altimeter subscale: set QNH for altitude above MSL, QFE for height above reference, QNE (1013.25 hPa) for flight levels.

1 hPa pressure change ≈ 27 ft near sea level; temperature error: flying from cold to warm air without resetting causes altimeter to under-read.

VSI lag: shows a momentary reverse indication when pitch changes abruptly (lag and overshoot).

Gyroscope rigidity: spin axis maintains fixed orientation in space; precession: applied force produces motion 90° later in direction of rotation.

Turn coordinator shows rate of turn (yaw) and roll; the slip/skid ball indicates coordination, not bank angle.

Attitude indicator: erected gyro; tumble limits typically ±100° pitch and ±170° bank; caged/uncaged for fast erection.

Magnetic compass: dip caused by vertical component of Earth's field; acceleration errors (ANDS) and turning errors (UNOS) in Northern Hemisphere.

Moment = mass × arm; CG = total moment ÷ total mass.

Empty weight includes unusable fuel and full oil; basic empty weight adds optional equipment and may differ from dry operating mass.

Forward CG: higher stall speed, longer takeoff run, heavier stick forces, better longitudinal stability.

Aft CG: lower stall speed, shorter takeoff run, lighter stick forces, degraded stability, possible pitch-up in stall.

Load sheet: dry operating mass + traffic load = zero fuel mass; + takeoff fuel = takeoff mass; + trip fuel = landing mass.

Maximum zero fuel mass limits structural loads without fuel; maximum takeoff mass limits both structural and performance.

Cargo shift aft increases CG and reduces stick stability; compute new CG before flight.

Standard passenger mass (EASA): 84 kg (adult), 35 kg (child), 0 kg (infant); crew 85 kg default.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature at that level); ISA lapse 2 °C per 1000 ft.

Takeoff distance increases ~10 % per 1000 ft pressure altitude and ~10 % per 10 °C above ISA at typical GA values.

V1 = decision speed; VR = rotation; V2 = takeoff safety speed; VMO/MMO = maximum operating speeds.

Balanced field length: distance where accelerate-stop equals accelerate-go; V1 chosen to minimise total distance.

Climb gradient % = (height gained ÷ horizontal distance) × 100; ROC = TAS × gradient ÷ 60.

Headwind component improves both takeoff and landing distance; crosswind component = wind speed × sin(angle).

Landing distance required: 1.43 × landing distance (dry) or 1.67 × (wet/contaminated) per CS-25 for commercial types.

Stall speed varies with √(load factor) and √(1/ρ); at 2 g load factor, Vs increases by factor √2.

Fuel plan: taxi + trip + contingency (5 % trip) + alternate + final reserve (30 min at holding) + extra.

True airspeed: TAS ≈ IAS × (1 + 0.02 × altitude in thousands of ft) at typical cruise; use navigation computer for accuracy.

Wind triangle: track = heading + drift; drift = arcsin(wind speed × sin(wind angle)/TAS).

Point of no return (PNR): distance = (fuel available × groundspeed out × groundspeed back) ÷ (GS out + GS back).

Equal time point: halfway along route when wind differs each way; fuel check ensures adequate reserve.

Contingency fuel per EU-OPS: 5 % of planned trip fuel or 5 min holding, whichever greater, unless specific approval.

Flight plan filing: submit at least 60 min before departure for IFR; 30 min for VFR in most European FIRs.

Alternate required if destination forecast has BKN/OVC below 2000 ft or visibility below 5 km at ETA ±1 h.

Hypoxia symptoms: euphoria, impaired judgement, cyanosis, headache. Time of useful consciousness at FL350 ≈ 30–60 s.

Hyperventilation mimics hypoxia; treat by slowing breathing; hypoxia treated with 100 % oxygen and descent.

Spatial disorientation: vestibular system unreliable in IMC; trust instruments; somatogravic illusion during acceleration.

Circadian low points: 03:00–05:00 and 15:00–17:00 local; performance and alertness lowest.

Fatigue: acute vs chronic; cumulative sleep debt degrades reaction time and decision making; controlled rest helps short-term.

Colour vision deficiency: red-green most common; affects aviation medical certification; use position of lights at night.

Stress: Yerkes-Dodson curve - moderate arousal optimises performance; high arousal degrades complex tasks.

Decompression sickness: nitrogen bubbles after rapid decompression; avoid flying within 24 h of diving (or 48 h for multiple dives).

ISA: sea level 15 °C, 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98 °C/1000 ft up to 36 090 ft (tropopause).

QNH: pressure reduced to MSL; QFE: pressure at aerodrome; QNE: 1013.25 hPa used above transition altitude.

Cloud bases: convective cloud base (ft) ≈ (temperature − dewpoint) × 400 (in °C, near surface).

Stability: warm air over cold surface = stable; cold air over warm surface = unstable (lapse rate steepens).

Fronts: cold front steep, fast-moving, showery, gusty; warm front shallow slope, extensive stratiform cloud, steady precipitation.

Icing: most severe in cumuliform cloud at 0 to −15 °C; freezing rain indicates warm front aloft with sub-freezing surface.

Wind: veers with height in Northern Hemisphere (Ekman spiral); backs in Southern Hemisphere.

Fog types: radiation (clear, calm night), advection (warm moist air over cold surface), frontal and upslope.

Great circle: shortest path on the globe; rhumb line: constant track, easier to fly but longer.

1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile (1 NM = 1852 m).

Convergency = change of longitude × sin(mean latitude) - applies to Mercator charts.

Mercator: rhumb lines are straight; scale increases with latitude; unsuitable for polar navigation.

Lambert conformal conic: straight lines approximate great circles; standard parallels define scale.

Heading = track − wind correction angle (positive drift means heading = track − drift).

Sunrise/sunset: local time varies with longitude and latitude; use almanac or nav computer; twilight ~30 min at mid latitudes.

Magnetic variation: east variation - magnetic heading = true heading − variation ("east is least").

VOR: 108–117.95 MHz; radials emanate FROM station; CDI centred with TO/FROM indicator shows aircraft on selected radial.

VOR accuracy ±1°; line-of-sight limited; usable range ≈ 1.23 × √height (ft) in NM.

NDB/ADF: 190–1750 kHz; ADF needle points to station; relative bearing + heading = magnetic bearing to station.

DME: slant range in NM; error increases at high altitude directly over station; frequency paired with VOR/ILS.

ILS: localiser (108–112 MHz) gives lateral guidance; glideslope (329–335 MHz) gives vertical; typical 3° path.

Marker beacons: outer (blue, ~4 NM), middle (amber, ~3500 ft from threshold), inner (white).

GPS RAIM: ensures integrity; non-precision approach requires RAIM availability at destination and alternate.

Transponder codes: A = mode 3, C = altitude; squawk 2000 when entering European airspace without ATC assignment.

Emergency: aviate, navigate, communicate; squawk 7700 and transmit MAYDAY on 121.5 MHz.

VMC into IMC: turn to nearest VMC, climb (if terrain permits), declare emergency, use instruments.

Engine failure after takeoff: pitch for best glide (Vg), select landing site within 30° of heading, do not turn back below 500 ft AGL.

Fire in flight: shut off fuel, mixture, electrics; discharge extinguisher; land as soon as possible.

Pre-flight: check NOTAMs, weather, mass and balance, fuel, performance, alternate, and emergency briefings.

Radio failure in IMC: squawk 7600, follow last clearance, proceed per published lost-comms procedures, land at nearest suitable aerodrome.

De-icing/anti-icing: holdover time per fluid type; check critical surfaces before takeoff; no takeoff with frost, ice, or snow on wings.

Wake turbulence: avoid within 3 min behind heavy; stay above preceding flight path; land after and take off before heavy.

Lift L = ½ ρ V² S CL; induced drag Di = L² / (½ ρ V² π b² e).

Stall: critical angle of attack (~15°); independent of weight, bank, or airspeed directly; load factor raises stall speed.

Bernoulli vs Newton: both contribute; pressure distribution and downward momentum change explain lift.

Boundary layer: laminar low-drag forward section; turbulent higher-drag but more resistant to separation.

Aspect ratio AR = b²/S; higher AR reduces induced drag; low AR (delta wings) generates vortices.

Centre of pressure moves forward as angle of attack increases (subsonic); CG must remain forward of neutral point for stability.

Mach critical: local airflow reaches M=1; shock waves form; drag rise and buffet; sweepback delays Mcrit.

Flaps: increase CLmax and drag; trailing-edge extend chord and camber; leading-edge slats delay stall.