NEB Class 12 English key terms

The mental process of understanding written or spoken text by linking its words and sentences to meaning, purpose, and prior knowledge. It goes beyond decoding to grasp main ideas, details, and implied messages.

The central point a passage or paragraph communicates, usually stated in one sentence. Supporting details, examples, and reasons in the text exist to explain, prove, or illustrate it.

A sentence, usually first in a paragraph, that announces the paragraph's controlling idea. Everything after it should develop that idea through explanation, evidence, or example.

A conclusion drawn from evidence in the text plus the reader's reasoning, rather than from an explicit statement. Skilled readers infer character feelings, causes, and attitudes without being told directly.

Reading quickly with the eyes moving over text to locate one specific item, such as a name, date, or number, without reading every word. It is the opposite of close reading.

Reading rapidly to get a general impression of a text's content and organization, often by looking at headings, first sentences, and key words. It is used before detailed reading or to decide relevance.

Information surrounding an unfamiliar word, such as a definition, example, contrast, or cause, that helps a reader guess its meaning. Using context clues keeps reading fluent without a dictionary.

A shortened restatement of a text's central points in the writer's own words, leaving out examples and minor details. A good summary keeps the original meaning and order of importance.

Restating a passage's meaning in different words while keeping its ideas and approximate length. It demonstrates understanding and is used to avoid direct quotation.

A single sentence in an essay that states the writer's central claim and often previews the main supporting points. It controls the whole essay and usually appears at the end of the introduction.

The opening sentence of a body paragraph in an essay, stating the one point that paragraph will support and prove. It connects the paragraph to the thesis and keeps the essay organized.

The quality of a text whose ideas are logically connected and easy to follow. It is achieved through clear organization, paragraph order, and linking devices that show relationships between sentences.

The way sentences stick together through grammar and vocabulary, such as pronouns, repetition, synonyms, and connectors. Cohesion is the surface glue; coherence is the underlying logical order.

A word or phrase such as however, therefore, in addition, or on the other hand that signals the relationship between ideas. Transitions guide readers through contrast, cause, sequence, and addition.

An essay that takes a clear position on a debatable issue and defends it with reasons and evidence while addressing opposing views. Its thesis is a claim, not a fact or a mere description.

The opposing view to a writer's position, presented fairly and then answered or refuted. Including it shows fairness and strengthens an argument by showing the writer has considered alternatives.

The part of an argument that answers or weakens the counterargument with reasoning or evidence. It usually follows the counterargument and explains why the writer's position still stands.

Facts, examples, statistics, testimony, or quotations used to support a claim. Strong evidence is relevant, sufficient, and credible, and it is usually introduced and explained rather than dropped in alone.

A group of sentences developing one focused idea, usually beginning with a topic sentence and ending with a concluding or linking sentence. Paragraph breaks signal shifts in idea to the reader.

The opening section of an essay that attracts interest, gives necessary background, and ends with the thesis statement. It sets the reader's expectations for what follows.

The final section of an essay that restates the thesis in fresh words, summarizes the main points, and offers a closing thought or implication. It introduces no new major arguments.

A letter written to an official, institution, or business in a polite, impersonal register, following conventions such as sender's address, date, salutation, body, and closing. It avoids slang and contractions.

A formal letter applying for a job, scholarship, or position, stating the purpose, relevant qualifications, and a request for consideration. It is usually accompanied by a curriculum vitae.

A concise document listing a person's education, work experience, skills, and references, used when applying for a position. It is organized in short sections rather than full paragraphs.

The greeting at the start of a letter, such as Dear Sir or Madam, Dear Mr. Sharma, or Dear Sir/Madam. In formal letters it ends with a colon or comma and matches the closing.

The level of formality and the choice of vocabulary suited to a situation and audience, ranging from casual speech to academic writing. Register affects word choice, grammar, and politeness.

The communicative purpose of an utterance, such as requesting, apologizing, inviting, suggesting, complaining, or refusing. Functions are often expressed through fixed phrases and appropriate intonation.

The use of language strategies, such as indirect requests, hedging, and respectful forms, to show consideration for the listener and avoid causing offence. It varies with social distance and power.

The rise and fall of pitch across a spoken utterance, which signals meaning such as question versus statement, certainty versus doubt, or the speaker's attitude. It carries information that words alone do not.

The extra loudness, length, and pitch given to a particular syllable in a word or a particular word in a sentence. Correct word stress and sentence stress make speech intelligible.

The way a speaker produces the sounds, stress, and rhythm of a language. Clear pronunciation includes correct individual sounds, word stress, and connected speech patterns.

Listening with full attention in order to understand, remember, and respond appropriately, using cues such as paraphrasing, asking clarifying questions, and giving feedback. It differs from passive hearing.

A method a storyteller uses to shape a story, such as point of view, foreshadowing, flashback, dialogue, symbolism, or irony. These choices control how readers receive events and characters.

The perspective from which a story is told, such as first person (I), third-person limited, or third-person omniscient. It determines what information the reader can access.

The voice that tells a story, who may be a character within it or an outside observer. The narrator is not necessarily the author and may be unreliable or limited in knowledge.

The techniques an author uses to reveal a character's personality, values, and motives, through description, action, dialogue, and the reactions of others. It may be direct or indirect.

The underlying central idea or insight about life that a literary work explores, such as love, loss, identity, or justice. It is usually implied rather than stated directly.

The use of a concrete object, person, or event to stand for a larger abstract idea, such as a flag for patriotism or a caged bird for freedom. Symbols gain meaning from context and repetition.

Descriptive language that appeals to the senses, creating pictures and sensations in the reader's mind. Imagery often works through figurative language to convey mood and theme.

A figure of speech that describes one thing as if it were another, without using like or as, such as calling hope a bird. It creates meaning by transferring qualities across unlike things.

A comparison between two unlike things using like, as, or than, such as brave as a lion. It makes a description vivid by linking the familiar to the unfamiliar.

A gap between what is said or expected and what actually happens or is meant. It includes verbal irony (saying the opposite), situational irony (unexpected outcomes), and dramatic irony (the audience knows more than characters).

The writer's or speaker's attitude toward the subject and audience, conveyed through word choice, imagery, and sentence structure. Tone differs from mood, which is the feeling created in the reader.

Language that departs from literal meaning to create effect, including metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole, and idiom. It is central to poetry and vivid prose.

The pattern of end rhymes in a poem, described with letters such as ABAB or AABB. It contributes to a poem's rhythm, structure, and emotional effect.

The regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables that gives a poem its rhythm, such as iambic pentameter. Meter is measured in feet, each foot containing a pattern of stresses.

A group of lines in a poem separated from other groups by a blank line, functioning like a paragraph. Stanzas organize ideas and control pace and emphasis.

A group of words containing a subject and a finite verb, such as she laughed or when he arrived. Clauses may be independent, standing alone, or dependent, functioning as part of a sentence.

A group of related words that functions as a single unit within a sentence but lacks a subject-verb combination, such as in the morning or very tired. Phrases act as nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

A classification of sentences by purpose: declarative (statement), interrogative (question), imperative (command or request), and exclamatory (strong feeling). Each has characteristic word order and punctuation.

The grammatical form of a verb that locates an action or state in time, such as present, past, or future, and aspect such as simple, continuous, or perfect. Tense must be consistent within a passage.

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number and person, as in she writes versus they write. Errors arise with collective nouns, indefinite pronouns, and interrupted subjects.

The relationship between the verb and its subject. In active voice the subject performs the action; in passive voice the subject receives it, often with a by-phrase.

A word such as and, but, because, or although that joins words, phrases, or clauses. Coordinating conjunctions join equals; subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses.

A word such as in, on, under, between, or despite that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another element, usually of place, time, or manner. It heads a prepositional phrase.

The marks used to separate and clarify written language, including commas, semicolons, colons, dashes, and quotation marks. Correct punctuation prevents ambiguity and shows sentence structure.

A reference identifying the source of a quotation, idea, or fact used in a piece of writing. It gives credit to the author and allows readers to locate the original source.

Presenting someone else's words, ideas, or work as one's own without proper acknowledgement. It includes copying, close paraphrasing without citation, and submitting others' work.