NY Regents Earth Science key terms

The amount of mass in a given volume of a substance, usually expressed in grams per cubic centimeter. It determines whether an object floats or sinks in a fluid and helps explain layering inside Earth.

The transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid, where warmer, less dense material rises and cooler, denser material sinks. It drives plate motion, atmospheric circulation, and ocean currents.

The amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius. Water's high specific heat moderates coastal climates and influences weather patterns.

The state of gravitational balance in which Earth's lithospheric plates float on the denser asthenosphere. It explains why mountains have deep crustal roots and why land rebounds after glaciers melt.

Vibrations generated by earthquakes that travel through Earth. P-waves compress and expand material and travel through solids and liquids; S-waves shake material side-to-side and cannot pass through liquids.

The layered structure beneath Earth's surface, consisting of the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. These layers differ in composition, density, and physical state, as inferred from seismic wave behavior.

The theory that Earth's lithosphere is broken into rigid plates that move over the asthenosphere. Their interactions at boundaries cause earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building.

A plate boundary where two plates move apart, allowing magma to rise and form new crust. It creates mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys, and is associated with shallow earthquakes and volcanic activity.

The process in which one lithospheric plate sinks beneath another at a convergent boundary. It produces deep-ocean trenches, volcanic arcs, and some of the deepest earthquakes.

A plate boundary where two plates collide. Continental collision builds mountains, while ocean-continent convergence produces subduction zones with volcanoes and earthquakes.

A plate boundary where two plates slide horizontally past each other. Crust is neither created nor destroyed, but friction can cause powerful earthquakes, as along the San Andreas Fault.

The process by which new oceanic crust forms at mid-ocean ridges as magma rises and solidifies, then moves away from the ridge. Magnetic striping and age patterns of the seafloor support this idea.

A fossil of an organism that existed for a short time but was widely distributed geographically. Such fossils help geologists correlate rock layers and determine relative ages.

Determining the order of past events without assigning numerical ages. Principles include superposition, original horizontality, and cross-cutting relationships.

A gap in the rock record where erosion removed layers or where deposition paused for a long time. It represents missing geologic time and can be identified by older rocks below younger ones.

A timeline of Earth's history divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs, based on major changes in life and rock records. It places events such as mass extinctions and mountain building in order.

A naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and an ordered internal structure. Minerals are identified by properties such as hardness, cleavage, luster, and streak.

The continuous series of processes by which rocks change from one type to another through melting, cooling, weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, and metamorphism. It links Earth's internal and surface processes.

Rock formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground and have large crystals; extrusive rocks cool quickly at the surface and have fine crystals.

Rock formed from compacted and cemented sediments or from chemical precipitation. It commonly contains fossils and layers, and its grain size reveals the energy of the environment where it formed.

Rock changed by heat and pressure without melting, often deep underground or near magma bodies. It may have foliation or recrystallized minerals that indicate the conditions of metamorphism.

The breakdown of rock into smaller pieces or dissolved substances by physical, chemical, or biological processes. It occurs in place and prepares material for erosion and transport.

The removal and transport of weathered rock and soil by agents such as water, wind, ice, and gravity. It shapes landscapes and deposits sediment elsewhere.

The dropping of sediment by water, wind, ice, or gravity when the transporting agent loses energy. Deposits often form layers that can later become sedimentary rock.

The layer of gases surrounding Earth, held by gravity and divided into layers by temperature. It protects life, enables weather, and moderates surface temperatures.

The short-term state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time, described by temperature, pressure, humidity, wind, and precipitation. It changes rapidly and is forecast using data and models.

The long-term average pattern of weather for a region, including typical temperatures and precipitation over many years. It is influenced by latitude, elevation, proximity to water, and ocean currents.

A large body of air with relatively uniform temperature and humidity, formed over a land or water surface. When air masses meet, fronts form and produce characteristic weather changes.

The boundary between two air masses of different density, temperature, and humidity. Cold fronts bring rapid uplift and storms; warm fronts bring gradual cloudiness and steady precipitation.

The continuous movement of water among the atmosphere, land, oceans, and living things through evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. It redistributes heat and fresh water.

Water stored in the pore spaces and fractures of soil and rock beneath the surface. It moves slowly through aquifers and is a major source of drinking water.

The percentage of a material's volume that consists of open spaces or pores. It determines how much water or air a rock or soil can hold, but not how easily the fluid flows.

The ability of a material to allow fluids to flow through its connected pore spaces. High-permeability materials such as gravel transmit water easily, while clay allows very little flow.

Regular changes in the amount of solar energy reaching each hemisphere, caused by Earth's 23.5-degree axial tilt as it orbits the Sun. They are not caused by distance from the Sun.

The incoming solar radiation that reaches Earth's surface. Its intensity varies with latitude, season, and time of day, and it drives weather, climate, and the water cycle.

The yearly orbit of Earth around the Sun, which takes about 365.25 days. Combined with Earth's axial tilt, it causes the cycle of seasons and changes in day length.

The point on Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake. It is located by using the difference in arrival times of P-waves and S-waves at three or more seismic stations.

The rigid outer shell of Earth, consisting of the crust and the uppermost solid mantle. It is broken into tectonic plates that move over the softer asthenosphere.

The rate of change of a quantity over distance, such as temperature change with altitude or elevation change along a slope. It is calculated by dividing the change by the distance.