NCEA Level 2 Geography key terms

The arrangement of features across an area, described by how they cluster, spread out, or line up. Geographers describe patterns before explaining the processes that produced them.

Where something is found across space, including how many there are in each place. A distribution can be described as clustered, dispersed, linear, or random.

The number of something per unit of area, such as people per square kilometre. Density allows places of different sizes to be compared fairly.

A situation where the pattern of one feature tends to occur alongside the pattern of another, such as high rainfall coinciding with dense forest. It suggests a possible relationship but does not prove cause.

A statistical tendency for two variables to change together: positive when both rise, negative when one rises as the other falls. Correlation does not by itself show that one variable causes the other.

A relationship in which a change in one factor directly produces a change in another. Claiming causation requires evidence beyond simple correlation, such as a plausible mechanism or controlled comparison.

The level of detail or size at which a phenomenon is examined, from local to national to global. A pattern visible at one scale may disappear or reverse at another.

An area defined by shared characteristics, such as climate, culture, or economic activity. Regions may be formal with clear boundaries or perceptual, existing mainly in people's minds.

How easily a place can be reached from other places, given distance, transport links, and cost. Improved accessibility usually raises land values and encourages development.

Meeting present needs without reducing the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It combines environmental, social, and economic considerations rather than treating them separately.

The maximum population or level of use an environment can support indefinitely without degrading. Exceeding it leads to resource depletion, pollution, or falling living standards.

The change to the natural environment caused by human activity or natural events, whether positive or negative. Impacts are often described by their scale, duration, and reversibility.

A process in which a change triggers further change that either amplifies the original effect (positive feedback) or reduces it (negative feedback). Feedback helps explain how systems stay stable or shift rapidly.

The growth of a population calculated as births minus deaths, excluding migration. It is usually expressed as a rate per thousand people per year.

The movement of people from one place to another to live, either within a country or between countries. Push factors drive people away and pull factors attract them.

A graph showing the age and sex structure of a population as horizontal bars. Its shape reveals whether a population is growing rapidly, ageing, or stable.

The rising proportion of a population living in towns and cities. It is driven by rural-to-urban migration and by natural increase within urban areas.

The outward spread of a city into surrounding countryside, usually at low density. It increases car dependence and the cost of providing services.

A city with a population of more than ten million people. Most megacities are now found in developing regions and face pressure on housing, transport, and sanitation.

The zone where two tectonic plates meet, where most earthquakes and volcanoes occur. Boundaries are classified as divergent, convergent, or transform depending on relative plate movement.

The process where a denser oceanic plate sinks beneath a lighter continental or oceanic plate at a convergent boundary. It generates deep ocean trenches, volcanic arcs, and powerful earthquakes.

A fracture in the Earth's crust along which movement has occurred. Sudden slip along a fault releases stored energy as an earthquake.

The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake. Shaking is usually strongest near the epicentre and weakens with distance.

A curved chain of volcanoes formed above a subducting plate. Magma rises as the sinking plate releases water that lowers the melting point of the mantle above.

The risk of earthquake-related damage to people and property in a given area. It depends on ground shaking, local geology, building strength, and preparedness.

The ability of a community or system to absorb a hazard event and recover quickly. It is built through planning, strong infrastructure, insurance, and social networks.

Actions taken to reduce the severity or likelihood of harm from a hazard, such as strengthening buildings or restricting development on flood plains. It differs from adaptation, which adjusts to unavoidable change.

The wearing away and removal of rock or soil by water, wind, ice, or gravity. Erosion shapes landforms and can be accelerated by human land use.

The laying down of eroded material when the transporting agent loses energy, such as a river slowing as it reaches the sea. Deposition builds features like deltas and beaches.

The breakdown of rock in place by physical, chemical, or biological processes, without the material being moved away. It prepares rock for erosion.

Work done by rivers, including erosion, transport, and deposition of sediment along a channel. Fluvial processes create valleys, flood plains, and deltas.

The area of land drained by a river and its tributaries. What happens within a catchment, such as deforestation, affects the river's flow and sediment load.

A natural feature of the Earth's surface with a recognisable shape, such as a valley, dune, or cliff. Landforms are produced by combinations of constructive and destructive processes.

The visible result of people interacting with the natural environment over time, such as terraced hillsides or irrigated fields. It reflects both physical conditions and human choices.

The planning and control of how natural resources such as water, soil, and forests are used. It aims to balance present use with long-term availability.

Any person or group with an interest in a decision or development, such as residents, businesses, councils, or iwi. Different stakeholders often hold conflicting views.

Collecting data in the real environment rather than from secondary sources. It involves planning, sampling, recording observations, and analysing findings to answer a geographic question.

Selecting a smaller set of sites or people to represent a larger area or population. Methods include random, systematic, and stratified sampling, each with different strengths.

Information collected first-hand by the researcher, such as surveys, measurements, or photographs taken during fieldwork. It is tailored to the question but can be time-consuming to gather.

Information gathered by someone else, such as census figures, maps, or reports. It is quick to obtain but may be out of date or collected for a different purpose.